I J 




Mahtru 

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Harris 



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Modern 

Jewish History 

FROM THE RENAISSANCE 
TO THE WORLD WAR 



BY 

MAURICE H. HARRIS, PH. D. 

NEW EDITION 
REVISED AND ENLARGED 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS , 
MAPS AND NOTES 



NEW YORK 
BLOCH PUBLISHING CO., 
1922 



*»3 



Copyright, 1922 
By MAURICE H. HARRIS 

SB* 



PRESS OF 
PHILIP COWEN 
NEW YORK 



Preface 

TO THE NEW EDITION 



This volume completes the author's history of the 
Jews. The series was commenced in 1897 with a Biblical 
history styled "People of the Book" in three volumes. 
The first covered the patriarchal period and the Mosaic 
Law (The Pentateuch) ; the second, the Israelitish Mon- 
archy; the third, the Epoch of the Prophets, closing with 
the Restoration of Judah after the Exile. 

This was followed by "A Thousand Years of Jewish 
History" — from the close of the Persian era to the en- 
trance of the Mohammedans into Europe. Next in the 
series was the "History of the Mediaeval Jews" cover- 
ing the Middle Ages, the entire Spanish era and closing 
with the discovery of America. 

The present volume is styled "Modern" though begin- 
ning with the Sixteenth Century; for that century wit- 
nessed the rise of such movements as the Renaissance, the 
Christian Reformation and the extension of political 
rights — all of which tended to shape the modern world. 
The first edition carried the story down to the Russian 
exodus. The author gratefully recalls the fact that the 
manuscript of this earlier edition was read by Dr. Henry 
Berkowitz and Dr. Martin A. Meyer. 

This modern history has now been recast and enlarged 
after a period of twelve years. New illustrations have 
been added. It covers the history down to the present 
year— 1922. 



6 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



The text is briefer and the notes fuller than in pre- 
vious volumes, as it will be put in the hands of advanced 
students who will be enabled by the many references to 
carry the study further. 

In order to encourage the study of different phases of 
Jewish questions, the Index has been compiled to group 
under special heads data scattered throughout the vol- 
ume. Among these may be mentioned : Gentile Appre- 
ciation of the Jew; Jews as Statesmen; Jews in Science 
and Letters ; Orthodox and Reform Judaism ; The Bible 
and Modern Life ; America ; The World War. 

In our survey of the entire history of the Jew from 
Bible times, we see that every age has brought him face 
to face with a different problem. The Jew of today must 
now re-interpret his function in the world and thereby 
help shape the destiny of the Jew of tomorrow. 

Some abbreviations : J. Q. R., Jewish Quarterly Re- 
view ; T. Y., A Thousand Years of Jewish History ; 
H. M. J., History of the Mediaeval Jews ; J. E., Jewish 
Encyclopaedia; J. P. S. A., Jewish Publication Society 
of America Publications. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface ......... 5 

Illustrations ......... 9 

Themes for Discussion ....... 10 



CHAPTER I. — The End of the Middle Ages. 
General Survey — Humanism — Reuchlin — The Reforma- 
tion — Luther — The Reformation and the Jews — 
Persecution by Legislation — Notes and References ; 
The Reformation and the Hebrew Bible — Elias 
Levita — "The New Doctrine" — Unitarianism — Court 
Jews . . . .- . . . . 11-22 

CHAPTER II. — Further Development in Torah and Kabala. 

The Italian Ghetto — Jewish Statesmen in Turkey — 
Karo's Shulchan Aruch — Mysticism Again — Sab- 
bathai Zevi — Notes and References ; Shulchan Aruch 
Kabala — Karo and Luria — Amulets — Azarya dei 
Rossi . . . . . . . . . 23-33 

CHAPTER HI. — Manasseh ben Israel. 
Netherlands severed from Spain — Jews admitted into 
Holland — Manasseh ben Israel — Jews readmitted into 
England — Notes and References ; Christian Apprecia- 
tion of the Jews — Bux,torf — Delitzsch — Manasseh ben 
Israel — Isaac da Fonseca Aboab .... 35-43 

CHAPTER IV. — Spinoza and His Contemporaries. 
Uriel Acosta — Baruch Spinoza — His Philosophy — Some 
Italian Rationalists — Jewish Dramatists — Notes and 
References ; Uriel Acosta — Baruch Spinoza — Jewish 
Dramatists — Moses Chaim Luzzatto . . . 45-54 

CHAPTER V. — The Passing of Poland and the Rise of Russia. 

Vaad of the Four Provinces — the Cossacks — The Chas- 
sidim — Partition of Poland — Russia — the Nineteenth 
Century — Reaction — The barbaric May Laws — Notes 
and References ; Chassidim — Haskalah — Persecution 
of Russian Jews — Jewish Dialects .... 

CHAPTER VI. — Moses Mendelssohn. 
Germany 

Early Struggles- -"Phaedon" (Immortality) — Jew and 
Christian — Mendelssohn as Emancipator — Internal 
Emancipation — External Emancipation — Solomon 
Maimon — Notes and References ; Mendelssohn and 
Lessing — Immortality — Mendelssohn's "Jerusalem" 

CHAPTER VII. — The Post-Mendelssohn Era. 
t 

Culture and its Perils — Heinrich Heine — Religious Re- 
form — Notes and References; Heine — Romanticism — 
Converts ......... 



55-69 



71-79 



81-88 



8 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



CHAPTER VIII. — Israel Learns to Know Himself. 
Intellectual Emancipation 

PAGE 

Leopold Zunz — History Extracted from Ritual — Learning 
and Liberty — Historians and Seminaries — Reform's 
Second Stage — James Darmesteter — Notes and Refer- 
ences ; Jewish Historians — Reform Judaism — Geiger 
and Holdheim — Jewish Humanists — Elijah Gaon . 89-106 
CHAPTER IX. — Political Emancipation. 

The French Revolution — Napoleon — The French San- 
hedrin — Napoleon's Downfall Brings Reaction — 
Growth of Jewish Rights — Balkan States — Ritual 
Murder and the Alliance — Jews and Liberalism — the 
Jew in commerce, finance, literature, science and 
statesmanship — Notes and References; French Revo- 
lution — Montefiore, Cremieux, Munk — Blood Accusa- 
tion and Jewish Ritual — Falashas — Chinese Jews — 
Gabriel Riesser — The Alliance Israelite Universelle — 
Jews of Roumania ...... 107-132 

CHAPTER X.— America. 

Early Settlements — Judah Touro — Revolutionary War — 
Commodore Levy and Mordecai Noah — Patriotism — 
South and Central America — Notes and References ; 
Jews in America — Separation of Church and State . 133-153 

CHAPTER XL — Jewish Achievement in the United States. 

Literature — Philanthropy — Religion — Jewish Education — 
Women's Organizations — Eminent men — Anti-Semit- 
ism — Zionism — Notes and References ; Emma Lazarus 
Baron de Hirsch — Jews in Agriculture — America 

and the Jew 155-186 

CHAPTER XII.— The World War. 

Jewish participance — Jewish suffering in the war— the 
New Map of Europe and Asia — Palestine — The rights 
of minorities — Notes and References ; The Jewish 
record in the World War — The Peace Conference 
and Rights of Minorities — Joint Distribution Com- 
mittee 185-208 

Appendix. 

Statistics of Jewish Population : 
The Jewish Population of the World: 

Jewish Population by Continents ; by Countries ; 

Jewish population of the principal cities of the world 209-211 
Chronological Tables : 

The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries . 212 



The Eighteenth Century 
The Nineteenth Century 
The Twentieth Century 
Index . . . .■ , 



213 
214 
215 
217 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 



The Grand Sanhedrin Convoked by Napoleon the Great at 

Paris in 1807 Frontispiece 

The Ghetto in Venice 25 

The Scribe, by Josef Israels 29 

Interior Amsterdam Synagogue, by Rembrandt •. 34 

Manasseh Ben Israel 37 

Baruch Spinoza 44 

At the Damascus Gate, Jerusalem 54 

Moses Mendelssohn 70 

The Old Rothschild House in Frankfort 80 

The Rabbi, by Rembrandt 88 

Leopold Zunz 91 

In the Frankfurt Judengasse 112 

Sir Moses Montefiore 114 

Earl Reading, Viceroy of India 117 

Adolphe Cremieux 121 

Chinese Jews 130 

Aaron Lopez 135 

Judah Touro 138 

The Jewish Cemetery at Newport 139 

Commodore Uriah P. Levy 142 

Mordecai Manuel Noah 144 

Monument at Cypress Hills Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York, 

for Jews fallen in the Civil War 154 

Emma Lazarus 156 

Jacob H. Schiff 159 

Girls' School of the Alliance Israelite Universelle at Bagdad 161 

Justice Louis Dembitz Brandeis 167 

U. S. Senator David Levy Yulee 169 

Rear Admiral Adolph Marix 171 

Theodor Herzl 177 

Baron Maurice de Hirsch 183 

Jews' Place of Wailing, Jerusalem 194 

General Allenby in Jerusalem 197 

Sir Herbert Samuel, High Commissioner of Palestine 199 

Street Scene in Jerusalem . 201 

Tel Aviv, Jaffa, facing the Hebrew Gymnasium 203 



MAPS 

The Pale of Jewish Settlement in Russia before the World 



Jewish Population of the United States by States ... .Back Cover 



THEMES FOR DISCUSSION 



CHAPTER 

I. a. Why did the rise of Protestantism create a new attitude 
of Christianity towards Judaism? 
b. On what did Reuchlin base his statement that Kabala 
favored Christianity ? 
II. Elaborate — the good and the evil of imposing specific 
ceremonial obligations for every occasion of daily life. 

III. Contrast the Jew with the Puritan. 

IV. a. Should the Synagogue still claim Spinoza as Tew? 

b. Discuss the versatility of Jewish character and genius 
as demonstrated in the contemporaries Sabbethai Zevi 
the Messianic adventurer and Spinoza the philosopher. 
V. Show the influence of environment on religion in the 
kinds of Judaism developed in Turkey, in Poland and 
in the latter day Orient. 
VI. a. Has Judaism dogmas? What is the distinction be- 
tween a creed, a doctrine and a dogma? 
Show how Judaism diverges from Christianity in its 
attitude towards dogma, 
b. Discuss the story of the "Three Rings" in Lessing's 
Xathan der YYeise. 
VII. a. Give some examples of Reform by exclusion and by 
simplification. 

b. Was the opening of the "Ghetto"' gate a loss to the 
Jew or a gain? 

VIII. a. Zunz belonged to the rational school of Bible critics; 
why then was he not a Reform Jew ? 
b. What is common between Humanism in general and 
Jewish Humanism ? 
IX. a. Was Napoleon a genuine advocate of Jewish rights? 
b. Has anti-Semitism any justification? 
X. Develop the subject — the better the Jew the better 
the American. 

XI. a. Contrast bigotry against the Jew in the Middle Ages 
with anti-Semitism of modern times, 
b. Show how American democracy has influenced the 
Synagogue . 

XII. Did Judaism and Christianity do their share in seek- 
ing to prevent the World War? 



Modern Jewish History 



CHAPTER I . 
THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 

General Survey. 

The story of the Jew from the sixteenth century, to 
be told in this concluding volume, is not as tragic as his 
history in the Middle Ages. The gleams of the Inqui- 
sition fires have died down. Massacres are far rarer, 
though there will be some. Europe turned the corner 
with the Reformation and the Printing Press. Where 
there is persecution at all, it is by oppressive legislation 
rather than by slaughter. The Jews still experience a 
Dark Age, somewhat of their own making; but we shall 
see it followed by an era of emancipation both political 
and religious. 

As the world to-day presents different degrees of 
civilization, so the status of the Jews varies with their 
environment. The Orient, in spots, still depicts the sup- 
pression of the individual, characteristic of antiquity. 
Eastern Europe was largely mediaeval in its attitude 
towards the Jew, certainly till the World War's close. 
The West alone shows the freedom of modernity. But 
we shall see, in all lands, that social prejudice persists 
even when legal disability is removed. 

We saw the Jews expelled from England in 1290, 
from France finally in 1394, from Spain in 1492, from 
Portugal in 1557, from German states and separate local- 
ities at various times. On the other hand we saw them 

11 



12 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



settling in Poland in the eleventh century, in Turkey 
and in South America in the sixteenth. We shall now 
witness their settlement in Holland, their re-settlement 
in England, their gradual entrance or re-entrance into 
most lands, and their large immigration to the United 
States. 

Humanism. 

Not only the map, but also the spirit of Europe 
changed in the fifteenth century. The Absolute Church 
and the "Holy Roman Empire" were steadily disinte- 
grating, both as facts and as beliefs. Italy had led the 
way in a new attitude towards the world, a fuller free- 
dom, a joy of living. The Renaissance — the rebirth of 
literature, art and science — was one of its expressions. 
To this the Medicis of Florence contributed a large 
share (See H. M. J., pp. 293-4). 

The revival of learning awakened a new appreciation 
for the classics of antiquity hitherto stigmatised as "pa- 
gan." In this feeling of greater freedom in thought and 
outlook men broke away from the thraldom of old 
notions of the world as a place of hopeless sin and ceased 
to regard its culture with suspicion. The term Human- 
ism is given to the new spirit. It was applied technically 
to the revived interest in Greek and Latin writings, — 
litterae humaniores — i. e., the literature that dealt with 
man rather than with God. So it stood in contrast to 
the old scholasticism and the writings of the monks that 
dealt with God rather than with man. 

But in its larger sense it not only concerned literature, 
but every sphere of human activity. It practically as- 



THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



13 



serted — as against the old tyrannies of Church and of 
State — man's right to know and to be. 

In science it led to new discovery and invention. In 
government it rung the knell of the old despotisms. In 
Christianity it brough the Reformation. This wave of 
light did not reach all lands at the same time. Italy led 
the advance in literature and art; Germany in religious 
reform ; France in political freedom. 

The new awakening reached Israel accidentally ; that 
is if there are any accidents in history. Let us say, 
rather "All chance, — direction that thou canst not see." 
About the year 1500 an ignorant apostate named Pfeffer- 
korn was used by the Dominican Order to vilify and 
ultimately destroy the Talmud. Such things had been 
done before, in France; why not again? The monks for- 
got two things : first, that it is not always safe to repeat 
an experiment, and secondly, that it was two hundred 
and fifty years since twenty-four carloads of Talmuds 
had been burnt in Paris. The world had advanced since 
then. 

The Jews dared to protest. This only brought new 
pamphlets of abuse from the Dominicans through Pfef- 
ferkorn urging their expulsion from Germany. He ob- 
tained from Emperor Maximilian permission to examine 
all books in Jewish possession and to confiscate those he 
deemed injurious. But here even the local archbishop 
intervened. It was not to be such plain sailing as in the 
"good old days." Both sides now appealed to the Em- 
peror and a great German scholar, John Reuchlin, was 
chosen to investigate the charges against Jewish books. 
Little did the Dominicans realize that in the choice of 
this noble-hearted Christian — a great Humanist — not 
only would their immediate purpose be defeated, but 



14 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



new events would grow out of it that would shake up 
all Christendom and prepare the way for the modern 
era of freedom and light. 

Reuchlin. 

None better fitted than Reuchlin for this task. He 
was prominent in the Humanist Movement mentioned 
above. He was also a Hebrew scholar — one of the very 
few in the Christian world. Through the wavering of 
the Emperor and the intrigues of Pfefferkorn and his 
allies, the incident dragged ; but through this very delay 
it came to be known to a widening circle and grew into 
a German and later into an international affair. Reuch- 
lin answered the question for which he had been en- 
gaged, "Was it advantageous to the Church to burn 
Jewish writings/' with a decisive negative. He showed 
that Jewish commentaries were indispensable to the the- 
ologian. He further claimed that Jewish Kabala (H. 
M. J. ch. xxv ) rather favored Church doctrine. As 
for the Talmud, the real bone of contention, he said 
most of its detractors were ignorant of it — therefore 
instead of burning, they should study it. Burning is no 
argument. He advised in conclusion that Hebrew pro- 
fessorships should be established in the universities. 

Furthermore, in behalf of the Jews, he asserted that 
as subjects of the Holy Roman Empire they were en- 
titled to its protection and that not being Christians, they 
could not be treated as heretics. 

The astounded Dominicans issued a printed rejoinder, 
slandering Reuchlin and charging him with being bribed 
by Jews to defend the Talmud. But he, also availing 
himself of the printing press, wrote a vigorous rejoinder, 



THE EXD OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



15 



thousands of copies of which were issued at the Frank- 
fort Fair. The eyes of the people were opened to many 
things. A public opinion on religion began to find ex- 
pression. The Dominicans might intrigue further to in- 
jure Reuchlin. the Talmud, and the Jews. They did. 
But their cause was lost. Pope Leo X., not a very good 
churchman, but a man of culture, ordered the Talmud to 
be printed instead of being burnt this time. 

The Reformation. 

Events were moving fast. The Reuchlin Humanists 
became an international party. The Talmud dropped 
out of the dispute but not till it had created a public 
opinion, prepared now to express itself on the funda- 
mentals of Christianity. Cardinal Egidio wrote to 
Reuchlin, "We are not defending the Talmud but the 
Church." 

The decline of Catholicism through the corruption of 
its clergy has been already dwelt upon in History of the 
Mediaeval Jews (ch. xxxv) and need not be dwelt on 
again. Huss had been burnt then. But it was as hard 
now to burn men as books. The Renaissance marked a 
general intellectual awakening. Thinkers were begin- 
ning to lose faith in some Romish doctrines, and also in 
the Pope's spiritual supremacy. In Italy it simply 
brought an era of negligent scepticism. But Germany 
was too earnest to rest in any such demoralizing position. 
The study of Hebrew and Greek, now fostered by the 
Humanists, was bringing a truer understanding of the 
Bible ; and the new art of printing was bringing the 
Scriptures to the people at large. They could get their 
religion at first hand now and think out certain things 
for themselves. 



16 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Luther. 

Martin Luther next emerges as the most prominent 
figure in the Christian Reformation that ultimately fol- 
lowed. He translated the Bible into German aided by 
the commentaries of some Hebrew scholars; for it was a 
cardinal principle of the new teaching that not the Pope, 
but the Bible, was the infallible religious authority. With 
great bravery he defended his attitude at the Imperial 
Diet of Worms, but unlike poor Huss, he had powerful 
friends at court. Even then, it would have gone hard 
with him, had not Emperor and Pope been at odds. So 
that we find the Emperor defending Luther in order to 
thwart the Pope. Apart from that, times were riper for 
a change. Reformers all over Europe were annulling 
old church regulations, changing the form of worship 
and advocating the marriage of priests. Gradually this 
reformed Christianity that "protested" against Catholi- 
cism grew into a distinct and separate church — Protes- 
tantism. But this was not fully established in the 
countries in which we find it now, till bitter warfare had 
arisen that rent all Christendom. Even then through the 
rise of a new order called Jesuits, Catholicism regained 
much lost ground. But this was all later than Luther's 
day. ' 

What was his attitude towards the Jews? At first, 
under Humanist influence, he was kindly, hoping now 
at last to convert them to Christianity under its im- 
proved form. So he says of their previous persecution : 

"I would rather have been a pig than a Christian ; 
they treated the Jews as if they were dogs, not men. 
The Jews are the best blood on earth through whom 
alone the Holy Spirit gave the Holy Scriptures to the 



THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



17 



world. My advice is that we treat them kindly — not 
driving them by force, prohibiting them from working 
amongst us and forcing them to be usurers. " 

But when in later years he found that this program 
did not bring them to the fold ; that, on the contrary, 
the new movement having shaken the faith of some 
in the Trinity, Jews were even daring to convert such 
to Judaism, his rage knew no bounds. All the slanders 
against them he had denounced in others, he now voiced 
himself ; and all the harsh treatment he had condemned 
in others, he himself now advocated. So the aged Lu- 
ther, pestered by disease and disappointed at the slow 
progress of the movement in one direction and the dar- 
ing rationalism of the extreme wing in another — vented 
all his bitterness on the Jews. He urged that their 
synagogues and houses be burnt, their books confis- 
cated, their rabbis silenced. They should be driven into 
rough shelter, prohibited from travelling and their money 
taken from them to maintain their own apostates. They 
were to be forced to hard labor and to be treated with- 
out mercy. 

These hard words were remembered against them in 
later days in Germany. So while Protestant lands be- 
came henceforth on the whole the havens of the Jews, 
the new Church instituted some restrictions and exclu- 
sions of its own. 

The Reformation 
and the Jews. 

Apart from the fostering of the study of Hebrew, the 
establishment of professorships in this language, and the 
translation of the Bible into all European tongues, the 
new movement but slightly affected the Jews. Just be- 



18 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



cause Judaism had not suffered the corruption of the 
Church, so it could not now enjoy this healthy reaction. 
Yet it rather needed revival too, for the Jews were now 
passing through an era spiritually and poetically barren. 
Philosophy was banned and mysticism encouraged. In- 
stead of learning that in unity is strength, the Jews were 
losing their opportunities by intense individualism ; each 
little group maintaining its separate institutions instead 
of communally combining for great service. Religious 
education of women was more neglected than ever. 
There were no savage massacres now, but neither were 
there noble martyrdoms. It seemed as though it were 
easier for the Jew to die for his Faith than to live for it. 

The change of the religious faith of half the Chris- 
tian world was not achieved without bloodshed. The 
international wars that followed lasted thirty years. 
During the Thirty Years' War ( from 1618 to the treaty 
of Westphalia, 1648), Jews suffered, of course: so did 
all classes, whether Protestants or Catholics. If some 
Jewish communities were destroyed, again others re- 
mained untouched. They might have been completely 
let alone, had they decided to hold passively aloof. But 
here and there their sympathies were generously aroused 
on behalf of friendly neighbors, leading them volun- 
tarily to endanger themselves in a cause not their own. 
Y\ 'hen it came to finding the "sinews" for this war both 
sides mulcted the Jews. But it was better to sacrifice 
treasure than blood. 

Persecution 
by Legislation. 

One of the latest instances of the old form of perse- 
cution occurred in 1614 before the Thirty Years War. 



THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



19 



One Fettmilch in order to spite the authorities, made 
a raid on the Jewish quarter of Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
Its property was destroyed and about fourteen hundred 
souls forced into banishment. The next year, in spite 
the magistracy, Jews were expelled from Worms. The 
fact that in both instances to embarrass the government, 
malcontents must be cruel to the Jews with whom they 
had no quarrel, gave the insurgents small concern. Yet, 
in both places, the higher authorities brought back the 
Jews within a year of their expulsion. The Emperor 
hanged Fettmilch and fined the city of Frankfort. Law 
and order were beginning to prevail and a sense of jus- 
tice to be recognized, even toward the Jew. 

But though persecution by massacre was nigh over, 
persecution by legislation continued during the seven- 
teenth century. Jews were admitted into the Mark of 
Brandenberg (later to become the 1 great kingdom of 
Prussia), the time of stay was limited and the cost high. 
The official year of admission to Berlin was 1671. Ham- 
burg had not yet opened its doors except to a few rich 
"Schutzjuden" (Court Jews) i. e., under special protec- 
tion of the head of the State, at a thousand marks an- 
nually. Others lived there like Maranos of old Spain. 
Local expulsions were not quite over and were here and 
there put into operation during a wave of fanaticism. 
Such an expulsion did occur in Vienna as late as 1670. 
In other German states Jews were just tolerated and 
that was all. Their scattered communities, chiefly in 
Prague, Frankfort and Worms, had humilitating restric- 
tions imposed upon them. So the outcome of the Re- 
formation for the Jews, was a little disheartening. 



20 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Notes and References : 

The Reformation and the Hebrew Bible: 

The study of the Hebrew Scriptures (called by the 
Church the "Old Testament") part cause and part con- 
sequence of the Reformation, led to some disturbing 
revelations. It was pointed out to despotic monarchies 
that the Old Testament made the people the source of 
power. The Hebrew prophets always championed the 
rights of the humble masses; while the words of the 
Xew Testament "render unto Caesar that which is 
Caesar's and unto God that which is God's," was taken 
as an endorsement of absolute monarchy. 

Luther in his later intolerant stage, was chagrined 
that the Jewish Jubilee restoring the family homestead, 
(Leviticus xxv) and the Jewish anti-slavery laws (Exo- 
dus xxi) should win the approval of some of his own 
clergy. 

Unitarianism. 

The reading of the Bible now encouraged by the 
Protestant movement brought to the attention of some 
Christians that the Old Testament gave no sanction to 
the cardinal Christian doctrine of the Trinity; so a new 
Christian sect denying it arose who called themselves 
Unitarians. Jews should be reminded that the essential 
distinction between modern Judaism and Unitarianism 
cannot be too strongly emphasized. They differ histori- 
cally, ceremonially and sentimentally. To the Unitarian, 
Jesus is still idealized above normal man. fSee ser- 
mons by American Rabbis — Harris, Vol. I. — Unitarian- 
ism and Judaism). 

Elias Levita, 

Levita was the founder of modern Hebrew grammar 
and was called to fill the Hebrew chair in France, the 
land that had. banished the Jews three times and had 
burned the literature he was now asked to teach ! He 
was teacher of Cardinal Egidio. He thus writes of his 
pupil : 



THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



21 



"I swear by my Creator that a certain Christian 
Cardinal Egidio, my pupil for ten years, came to me 
and kissed me, saying 'Blessed be the God of the 
universe who has brought thee hither. Xow abide 
with me and be my teacher, and I shall be to thee as 
a father and support thee in my house and bear all 
thy wants.' Thus we took counsel together 'iron 
sharpening iron'. I imparted my spirit to him and 
learned from him excellent and valuable things that 
are in accordance with truth." (See Jewish Life in the 
Middle Ages, Israel Abrahams. In the same volume 
read pp. 401-403 on the Lutheran Reformation). 

Luther based the translation of the Bible, not on the 
Latin translation called the Vulgate, accepted by the 
Catholic Church but on the original Hebrew. He was 
aided bv notes taken from Rashi's Commentarv (see 
H. Af. /. Chap, xiv.) 

The Tews contributed their share towards the general 
fostering of learning, in the establishment of great print- 
ing houses, from whose presses, general as well as Jewish 
classics were issued. 

Protestantism. 

In his three lectures on '"Times of Erasmus and 
Luther'' {Short Studies in Great Subjects) James 
Anthony Froude says : 

"The Reformation broke the theological shackles 
with which most minds were fettered. It set them 
thinking and so gave birth to science. The Reform- 
ers also, without knowing what they were about, 
taught the lesson of religious toleration. They at- 
tempted to supersede one set of dogmas by another. 
They succeeded with half the world; they failed with 
the other half. In a little while it became apparent 
that good men without ceasing to be good, could think 
differently about theology; and that goodness there- 
fore depended upon something else than the holding 
of orthodox opinions." 



22 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Court Jews, (Schutz-Juden) : 

This was a term applied to some wealthy men of large 
commercial interests whom the rulers in Germany and 
Austria of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries made 
use of as their financial agents and purveyors in time of 
war. In a sense they are the historic successors of the 
Jewish state treasurers of earlier centuries. They were 
excused from wearing the badge and had greater free- 
dom of residence than the rest of their brethren. 

"Renaissance. " Article Encyclopedia Brittanica, 9th 
edition, vol. xx. Read in particular from p. 388, the 
relation between Humanism and the Reformation. 

"Reuchlin" and "Pfefferkorn," Hirsch, /. Q. R., Vol. 
iv., and viii. 

Lecky, History of European Morals, Vol. ii ; p. 119. 
Emanuel Deutsch, The Talmud, J. P. S. A., pp. 13-16. 
"Bible Translations/' /. E., Vol. iii. 
For a picture of the Fettmilch riots see Jewish En- 
cyclopedia, Vol. v. 

Themes for Discussions 

a. Why did the rise of Protestantism create a new 
attitude of the Christian toward Judaism? 

b. Why did Reuchlin imagine that the Kabala 
favored Christian doctrine? 



CHAPTER II 



FURTHER DEVELOPMENT IN TORAH 
AND KABALA 

The Italian Ghetto. 

So far the general status of the Jews in Europe; now 
let us survey their condition in separate lands. Let us 
turn our attention first to Italy and Turkey. 

Although Italy was the home of the Renaissance and 
although this land became modern earlier than any other 
in Europe, the comparatively favorable status of its 
Jews (H. M. J. Ch. xxxi and xxxii) underwent an un- 
favorable reaction. This began under Popes Paul IV. 
and Pius V. and VI. Paul IV. reintroduced the yellow 
badge and in 1554 established the Ghetto of Rome. 
But Venice had already set the example in 1516 of thus 
crowding the Jews into a few unhealthy streets and we 
may add, out of all handicrafts. Italy it may be re- 
membered was not one nation, but was composed of 
several states. 

Simon Luzzatto, Venetian rabbi and literateur (1590- 
1663) found it necessary to write a treatise in defense 
of Jews and Judaism. He showed to the prejudiced 
Venetian patricians what valuable service their pre- 
sumed Jewish rivals were rendering in retaining for 
Venice the trade of the Levant (lands on Eastern coast 
of the Mediterranean) for it was fast passing into the 
hands of English and Dutch. He pointed out that the 
Jews contributed wealth to the State, gave employment 
to thousands and fostered local industries. 

He further showed that their learning, their religious- 

23 



24 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



ness, their hospitality, self-denial and patience made 
them desirable subjects. 

But prejudice is ever blind. From 1550 to 1597 the 
Italian Jewish story is one of local expulsions; chiefly 
from papal states, i. e., provinces ruled by the Popes. 
But those exiled from southern Italy found a refuge in 
Turkey, as did their Spanish co-religionists nigh a cen- 
tury earlier. Here they were politically and religiously 
unfettered. Venice now met its day of reckoning; for 
the Jews showed their capacity for commerce by taking 
the wholesale trade of Turkey and the collection of cus- 
toms largely in their hands. From this vantage ground, 
the "merchants" of Venice" now found their most 
dangerous competitors among those whom they had 
mocked and spurned on the Rialto. But the doom of 
Venice was foreshadowed by the discovery of America 
and when in consequence the Mediterranean, controlled 
by this leading commercial State, gradually lost its im- 
portance as the chief highway for the trade of the 
world. 

Jewish Statesmen in Turkey. 

From the time when Turkey settled in Europe and 
overthrew the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453, it more 
and more became a Jewish center of gravity. Constanti- 
nople had thirty thousand Jewish souls and forty-four 
congregations in the sixteenth century. Through this 
"open door" of Turkey came a great man — Joseph Nasi. 
Born in Portgual about 1500, he settled successively in 
Antwerp, Venice and Constantinople. In each place his 
wealth and genius for finance singled him out for dis- 
tinction ; but not till he reached Turkey could he openly 
live the Jewish life. Insofar his history was character- 
istic of many. In the Porte (Turkey) he attained a 



THE VENICE GHETTO 



26 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



position of state as influential as that of Ibn Nagrela or 
Chasdai Ibn Shaprut in the golden days of Spain. 
Venice, that had imprisoned his aunt, the cultured Donna 
Gracia, and confiscated her wealth, had now to release 
both her and her property at his dictation as Turkey's 
representative. In this case, the Venetians were the 
Shylocks and Joseph Nasi, the "Daniel come to judg- 
ment." How the tables had turned ! It was at his 
urgency too that Turkey wrested Cyprus from Venice. 
The European nations so recognized his influence that 
William of Orange appealed to him to aid the Nether- 
lands and the Protestant cause by persuading Turkey to 
enter into war with Philip II., of Spain (though no war 
followed). Through him the Emperor of Germany 
sought a treaty of peace with Turkey. x\ustria and 
Poland were suitors for his "good offices." Such was 
his power that France, refusing to pay money borrowed 
from the Nasi family, he was allowed to seize French 
vessels in Turkish waters, and to sell their cargoes to 
repay his debt. As further mark of favor the Sultan 
gave him some neighboring islands and made him Duke 
of one of them — Naxos. 

Nasi, showing himself also a patron of Jewish scholar- 
ship and a warm ally of his co-religionists, Tiberias in 
Palestine was given into his hands for Jewish coloniza- 
tion. Although late in life shorn of his power, (the 
avor of princes is capricious) the favorable status of 
Turkish Israel remained unchanged. 

Still more remarkable was it that Nasi should be suc- 
ceeded in this prestige by yet another co-religionist, 
Solomon Ashkenazi. Born in Italy in 1520, he first won 
distinction as physician to the King of Poland. Settling 
later in Constantinople, he was the power behind both 



FURTHER DEVELOPMENT IN TORAH AND KABALA 27 



the Sultan and his vizier. It was he who virtually placed 
Henry of Anjou on the Polish throne. In 1574, un- 
willing Venice was forced to receive him with appro- 
priate honors as Turkey's ambassador in signing a 
treaty of peace. In fact, it was through his intercession 
that Venice was induced to revoke its decision of banish- 
ment of its Jews. 

How dramatic the contrasts had always been in the 
history of the Jew ! From behind the throne of one land 
he dictates terms to another that spurned him. Here 
exalted to the peerage and given lands, and there not 
allowed to own a foot of soil and degraded with the 
yellow badge. 

Turkey was then a safe haven for harassed Jews ; 
it is a pity that they did not make of it something more. 
For though rich and at ease, our brethren at Constan- 
tinople in no way emulated the intellectual achievements 
of earlier Spain. The reason is partly to be sought in 
the less favorable national background. For the Turks 
showed neither the energy nor the love of culture that 
had distinguished the Moors of the Peninsula. The 
Turks were a very different race from the Arabs, 
though they accepted the Moslem religions from them. 
Turkey soon reached the anti-climax of slothful in- 
activity. It became an enervated nation ruled by favor- 
ites, with intrigue and assassination the all too familiar 
associations of the Court. So it did not offer the best 
atmosphere for the intellectual life. 

Karo's Shulchan 
Aruch. 

Let us now turn to the inner life of the Jew. While 
Jewish refugees bent on commerce, sought refuge in 



28 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



European Turkey, those desiring a religious atmosphere 
turned their steps to Asiatic Turkey. It was a mystic 
Judaism that they sought in which visions of the speedy 
advent of the Messiah played a large part. But that 
was just the environment congenial; to Joseph Karo 
whom we are now to consider. Born in Spain in 1488, 
after many wanderings he finally settled in Safety then 
a safer Palestinian refuge than Jerusalem. He will al- 
ways be remembered as the final codifier of Jewish Law 
for which his extensive studies and scholarly patience 
made him chief authority. These vast researches first 
presented in a profound work were finally summarized 
and simplified into a popular book called Shulchan 
Aruch (The Spread Table). This name explains its 
purpose. It is based on the Code of Law of Asheri 
(H. M. J. pp. 252-3,) and follows the same four di- 
visions. But it included all later law development up to 
Karo's day through Responsa (written decisions) of in- 
dividual rabbis. Issued just at the time when the print- 
ing press was being used to disseminate Jewish litera- 
ture, it was very widely distributed and moreover, print- 
ing gave to this digest a kind of finality. The press 
stopped the fluidity of the oral law and thus it impeded 
further progress in Jewish observance. Crystallization 
had been the tendency ever since the Talmud was com- 
mitted to writing. 

The Shulchan Aruch was valuable in that it brought 
uniformity into divergent Jewish practice. Though some 
of its injunctions suit only mediaeval conditions, it has 
continued to be the final authority for the orthodox Jew. 

To find out a particular religious practice the in- 
dividual does not go to the Talmud, which would be a 
wild search at best, but makes the Shulchan Aruch his 



w 

< 

m 



m 
O 



U 
C/3 



30 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



guide. It was further amplified by Moses Isserles of 
Poland, with whose commentary it is usually printed. 
Its form is that of a code to master, not a religious work 
to inspire. For the moral principles scattered through it 
are lost in vast ceremonial minutiae. Through such a 
code unformity is obtained, though at the expense of 
religious spontaneity. Judaism must be based on law, 
but we do not need detailed laws for every turn in 
human experience. When opportunity to express in- 
dividual needs is suppressed, religion may degenerate 
into cut-and-dried forms and formulas. 

Most mediaeval scholars were either legists or mystics. 
Karo was both. In his versatile nature were combined 
the systematic routine of the classifier and the imagina- 
tive phantasy of the dreamer. The Mishna was to him 
first a cold book of law, and secondly an angelic personi- 
fication that whispered counsel in his dreams. 

Mysticism Again. 

The sixteenth century Jew was becoming more and 
more steeped in the mysticism of Kabala, and the dreamy 
Orient offered a favorable environment. Its most re- 
nowned exponent in Safet of this time was Isaac Luria, 
the influence of whose life and teaching brought many 
disciples. A quaint but beautiful teaching of his was 
that the world's purification can be hastened by a union 
of souls, i. e., a weak living soul can be strengthened 
by union with the worthier soul of one departed ! The 
Zohar was now regarded like the canon of Scripture; 
Kabalism became more and more fantastic. Spiritual- 
ism, metempsychosis, marvel and exorcism of devils now 
preponderate in the mystic literature of the day. 

In the previous volume we have endeavored to present 



FURTHER DEVELOPMENT IN TORAII AND KABALA 31 



Mysticism and Kabala at their best. But these wild en- 
thusiasts of the second half of the sixteenth century 
were dangerous guides for the people at large. From 
Palestine the mystic wave spread through Turkey to all 
the lands of European settlement, "darkening counsel 
without knowledge". It was the enemy of healthful 
thought and even began to affect the moral tone of Jew- 
ish life. So while Christendom was emerging from its 
intellectual Dark Ages,, the Jews in a sense were entering 
theirs. 

Sabbathai Zevi. 

The mania reached its climax with the appearance 
of Sabbathai Zevi as Israel's Messiah. He was born in 
Smyrna. Asia Minor. This youth was as beautiful as 
Absalom. At first a sincere Kabalistic dreamer, the 
dazzle of a crown soon turned his head. His extrava- 
gant claims stirred a ripple all over Europe. For a time 
his crusade and large following were the subject of 
comment on its exchanges. Some Christians caught the 
fever and looked for the millenium. He kept the whole 
Jewish community of Turkey and its surroundings in a 
ferment from 1650 to 1676 and demoralized it, both in 
belief and conduct. His heretical influence extended to 
the introduction of a new synagogue ritual embodying 
his worship. Even when this weak and vacillating crea- 
ture to save himself became a convert to Mohammedan- 
ism — aye even after his death — the delusion of his semi- 
divinity persisted. "Sabbatianism" became a cult injur- 
ious both to Judaism and the Jew. 

A notorious adherent of Sabbatian Kabalists was 
Jonathan Eibeschutz (1690-1764) of Crakow, a strange 
mixture of good and evil. This rabbi and writer on 



32 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Talmudic law, distributed talismans and amulets (Kemi- 
ath) inscribed with Zevi's name, and the tetragram- 
maton, (four lettered name of God), supposed to drive 
off spirits and to heal diseases. A new controversy now 
arose in Israel between Rabbanites and Kabalists in 
which the worthy and scholarly Rabbi Jacob Emden 
figured. 

Jacob Frank, born in Podolia about 1726, went to yet 
further blasphemous extremes in starting an abortive 
movement named after himself. He was altogether an 
adventurer, playing with religion to serve his own selfish 
ends, assuming at times the role of Messiah. Yet even 
King Augustus III of Poland was deceived into endors- 
ing him. Just as Zevi saw a way out of his difficulties 
by adopting Islam, so Frank saved himself by adopting 
Christianity. 

Both movement appealed to the less intelligent Jews 
of Poland and the East; but that meant a very vast 
number. The Frankist faction was the lowest water- 
mark reached by the Jews, as outgrowth of the Sabba- 
tian heresy. 

How foreign all this to the simplicity and rationalism 
of classic Judaism. 

Notes and References : 
Shulchan Aruch : 

The Law of Israel. The reader is referred to a work 
of this name as a popular presentation of the spirit of the 
Shulchan Aruch, by Bernard Abramowitz, 3 vols. 
Hebrew and English, New York, 1902. 

Lippman Heller (1600) who flourished in Vienna, 
wrote a commentary on the Mishna called "Tosephoth 
Yom Tob" which is sufficiently important to be always 
printed with each copy of the Mishna. 



FURTHER DEVELOPMENT IN TORAH AND KABALA 33 



Dembitz, Service in Synagogue and Home, pp. 42-43. 
See also Index. J. P. S. A. 

Kabala : 

Abrahams, Jewish Literature, 238-242. 

Karo and Luria : One should read Schechter's appre- 
ciation of these men in Studies in Judaism, second 
series, article "Safet" and Graetz' depreciation, in the 
abridged translation of his History, Vol iv., from p. 612 
and Vol. v from p. 51, to obtain different points of 
view. J. P. S. A. 

The semi-expiatory character of the Seventh Day of 
Tabernacles, known as Hoshana Rabba ('The Great 
Salvation") with its attendant mysticism, dates from 
Luria's time. 

Sabbathai Zevi\ Zangwill, Dreamers of the Ghetto, 
"The Turkish Messiah". J. P. S. A. 

Amulets: See Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle 
Ages, pp. 182, 289, 290. 

Students of the Law. 

Azarya Dei Rossi flourished in Italy about 1550. Un- 
like so many who studied the Talmud to the exclusion 
of Philo, Josephus and Hellenistic literature generally, 
Dei Rossi in his "Light of the Eyes" brought them into 
direct relation. But unfortunately while Dei Rossi's 
works were shunned, Luria's were devoured. 

A great polemic work in defense of Judaism was writ- 
ten by a Polish Karaite, Isaac Troki, 1533-94, called 
Chozek Amunali (Faith Strengthened), and translated 
in many tongues. An English translation of this excel- 
lent work was made by Mocatta in 1851, London. 

Ghetto : For the original meaning of this term and for 
the history of varied Jewish quarters, see Old European 
Jewries, Phillipson, J. P. S. A. 

Theme for Discussion : 

Elaborate the good and evil of imposing specific cere- 
monial obligations for every occasion of daily life. 



CHAPTER III. 



MANASSEH BEN ISRAEL. 
(Holland) 

Netherlands severed 
from Spain. 

Jews began to settle in the Netherlands before these 
lands came into the possession of Spain. So when the 
"New Doctrine/' as Protestantism was called, took root 
in the "Low Countries/' the Jews made common cause 
with the dissenters against the Catholic dominance of 
Spain. The Inquisition was introduced and the same 
revolting methods were resorted to here to suppress 
Protestantism, that had been used against the Maranos 
of Spain and Portugal. In France King Charles IX, in 
the interests of Catholicism did not hesitate to plan the 
St. Bartholomew Night massacre in 1572, to eradicate 
the Huguenots, as the Protestants were called there. It 
W ( as the story of the Albigenses over again. (H. M. J. 
p. 150). The inhuman Duke of Alva and his fitting 
master, Philip II of Spain did their best, which was 
their worst, to coerce the Dutch to their will, but they 
failed. Egmont and Horn were among the martyrs to 
the cause. Under the brave William of Orange, they 
threw off the Spanish yoke and established the Dutch 
Republic. The Union of Utrecht, 1579, acknowledged 
the United Provinces of the Netherlands. William of 
Orange became Stadt-holder. Americans should appre- 
ciate to the full this struggle for independence and this 
"father of his country/' Did not their own Pilgrim 
Fathers set out from free Holland? Terrific experience 

35 



36 



MODERN" JEWISH HISTORY 



had taught William to make toleration one of the pillars 
of the new State. 

Jews Admitted 
into Holland. 

So Jewish refugees from Portugal found here a 
refuge, and in this free land thousands of Neo-Christians 
returned to the Jewish fold. Amsterdam, styled the 
"Northern Venice/' was for the time being their new 
Jerusalem. They made themselves further welcome by 
transferring to their new home their trade with the 
East Indies. In conjunction with their brethren settled 
in the West Indies, they extended trans-Atlantic enter- 
prise. 

Scholars came to Holland as well as merchants and 
transferred the Torah as well as doubloons. Some of 
the refugees were professional men who brought with 
them five centuries of Spanish culture. So love of 
scholarship was yet another reason that made their im- 
migration desirable; for appreciation of learning was 
the spirit of the times, and Holland was one of the 
scholarly centres. Maranos of the third generation had 
not forgotten their Judaism, though like their brethren 
of ancient Alexandria, they had forgotten their Hebrew. 
But by importing rabbis and learned men, such as Saul 
Morteira, Isaac Aboab and David Pardo, they were en- 
abled to found schools and later still a rabbinical college. 
From this college they sent forth rabbis to the new com- 
munities in South America. 

Manasseh ben Israel. 

From this academy came forth Manasseh ben Israel. 
Born in 1604 (one year after the death of Queen Eliza- 



MANASSEH BEN ISRAEL 



38 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



beth of England), his father escaped the clutches of the 
Inquisition and reached Amsterdam with him in 1605. 
Not a profound scholar, he became a very broad and 
versatile one. Though a linguist and an orator, and 
well versed in sacred and secular literature, he eked 
out but a scant living between preaching and printing. 
He wrote many books, but his greatest production was 
his "Vindiciae Judaeorum," a work defending Israel 
against its detractors, which takes rank with Josephus' 
"Contra Apion." (7\ Y. p. 177.) Hebrew was becoming 
a favorite study of Christian savants and they turned 
to Manasseh as guide. But like Abarbanel, another man 
of varied rather than deep learning (H. M. J. pp. 345-6), 
he attained pre-eminence in the field of action rather 
than in that of thought. Abarbanel had striven to pre- 
vent Jews being expelled from Spain. 

But Manasseh ben Israel won international renown by 
undertaking to secure the re-admittance of the Jews into 
England — banished since 1290. 

To make clear why this was a propitious time to plead 
for their return, a word must be said to explain some 
peculiar anomalies in the spirit of the age. It was an 
era, following the great upheaval of the Reformation 
and its Thirty Years War, of great Messianic expecta- 
tion. This carried with it a reaction of sympathy and 
even appreciation of the much persecuted people of 
Israel. The study of the Scriptures now encouraged 
revealed them so much more clearly as the source of the 
ethics and main beliefs of the Church. The study of the 
Prophets from the Christian point of view showed that 
the fate of the Jews was bound up with Christendom's 
hopes for the second coming of their Messiah. Manasseh 
and his co-religionists, all more or less tinged at this 



MANASSEH BEN ISRAEL 



39 



time with Kabalistic mysticism, were also awaiting the 
speedy advent of the Messiah, in the sense in which the 
Synagogue interpreted that hope. 

Such was the temper of Protestant Holland and also 
of Protestant England. The English Puritans were now 
in the ascendancy with Oliver Cromwell, the uncrowned 
king. Puritanism stood for simplicity and liberty in re- 
ligion. It was from the Old Testament rather than from 
the New that the Puritans chose their standards of con- 
duct ; from Hebrew heroes their warriors took inspira- 
tion. The Puritan note at this moment was an approach 
towards Judaism. Many works were written in behalf 
of the Jews and of their share in the Messianic King- 
dom soon to dawn. 

At this psychologic moment Manasseh came to Eng- 
land to plead for the readmission of his people. The 
reason he urged, voiced the mystic expectations of both 
Judaism and Christianity at this hour. What was it? 
The Messiah's advent was not ripe till the dispersion of 
the Israelites was complete. They were now, said Man- 
asseh, settled in every land — except England ! So their 
admission there might decide the Messiah's imminent 
arrival. Strange though this argument seems to us, it 
mirrored many of the fantastic opinions of the pamphlet 
literature then flooding the land and was quite likely to 
appeal to Cromwell. 

Manasseh's first argument then was spiritual, his sec- 
ond material. A progressive mark of the times was the 
growth of commerce. To control the West Indian colo- 
nial trade was part of Cromwell's imperialistic ambition. 
International trade was largely in Jewish hands. Settled 
in Brazil in America, and in Italy and Holland in 
Europe, Cromwell was made to see through Manasseh, 



40 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



that the Jews controlled the trade of the New World in 
gems, wines, oil, indigo and cochineal. For such men 
of enterprise to settle in England and to bring their 
means and commerce with them, could only redound to 
the advantage of the. country. So Cromwell invited 
Manasseh ben Israel to come to England and press his 
claims in person. He came in 1655 and his brethren 
in all lands regarded him as their representative. 

He presented his cause, which included an apologia, 
a defense of his people. This was later developed into 
the work above referred to. in which he answers every 
slander against Israel. It is the best product of his pen. 

Cromwell appointed a commission to consider whether 
it was lawful to readmit the Tews into England, and if 
so, on what conditions. Popular feeling ran high on 
both sides — some opposition coming from Royalists and 
Catholics. If previously much had been written in favor 
of the Jews, now pamphlets were circulated to their 
detriment. But when the Dutch expressed alarm that 
they might lose their Jewish settlers, they were uncon- 
sciously offering to England the very best argument in 
their favor. 

What was the result of Manasseh's able defense? In 
spite of a pension from Cromwell, he returned dis- 
spirited, thinking he had failed. On his way home he 
died, perhaps of a broken heart. 

Jews readmitted 
into England. 

As a matter of fact, like Elijah of old he was more 
successful than he realized. While no official law was 
promulgated announcing the readmission of the Jews, 
Cromwell — fearing that to force the issue might defeat 



MANASSEH BEX ISRAEL 



41 



it — let it be quietly understood that they would not be 
debarred. Some Maranos in England now dropped their 
Catholic mask. In 1657 they were allowed to acquire a 
Jewish burial ground. So while it is hard to fix on any 
date as that of their readmission, English Jews have 
chosen February 4, 1657, as the date of resettlement. 

Had Manasseh ben Israel lived but a few years longer, 
he would have seen Jews coming to England in King 
Charles IFs reign and the establishment of a strong 
Sephardic community that ultimately outrivalled that of 
Amsterdam. 

Xotes and References : 
Christian Appreciation of the Jew. 

The change of front towards the Jew seen in the 
English Puritan was also visible on the continent. The 
"outcast of God" became ''God's chosen". The marvel 
of Israel's survival was compared to the burning bush. 
The enthusiasm of some even carried them into the 
Jewish fold. A stimulus for Hebrew learning followed. 

Father Richard Simon, a Frenchman and as apprecia- 
tive of Jewish literature as Reuchlin, wrote "The Critical 
History of the Old Testament." 

William Surenhusius. a Dutchman, translated the 
Mishna and its commentaries. 

Basnage wrote ''The Historv of the Religion of the 
Jews." 

Charles XI of Sweden, despatched scholars to investi- 
gate the Karaites. Appreciation came from Denmark 
and Augsberg. 

Eisenmenger's two volumes of slander were sup- 
pressed for forty years — though later it became the en- 
cyclopedia and arsenal of Judeophobe. 

For appreciation of Jews in fiction, the reader is re- 
ferred to "Adventures of Ferdinand", Tobias Smollett, 
and "The Jew" a drama by Richard Cumberland, both 
of the 18th century. In this connection, belonging to the 
19th century, the following may be mentioned : 



42 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



"Israel Among the Nations" Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, 
trans, by Frances Hellman (Putnam's 1895), Macaulay's 
"Essay on the Disabilities of the Jews" ; George Eliot's 
Essay "Hep! Hep!" in her "Theophrastus Such", as 
well as her novel "Daniel Deronda" ; also Pere Hya- 
cinth's "Tribute Paid to Israel" in 1891. (Sept. 27th) 'on 
the centennial anniversary of the emancipation of the 
Jews by the Constitutional Assembly. "It was a day that 
witnessed the reparation of a long and cruel injustice. 
. . . We are Christians and as such we must not forget 
that it was from Israel's bosom that we have sprung." 

Another Catholic, Le Monde, paid a tribute to them. 

Buxtorf: 

The Buxtorfs, father and son, contributed much 
toward the further knowledge of biblical and rabbinic 
Hebrew. Just a century elapsed between the birth of 
the father and the death of the son, 1564-1664. Both 
gathered large Hebrew libraries and held in succession 
the Hebrew professorship in the University of Basel. 
From their pens we have Hebrew and Chaldaic gram- 
mars and lexicons. The elder — the pioneer of rabbinic 
studies among Christians, edited a Hebrew Bible with 
rabbinic commentaries. In their case love of Hebrew 
did not imply approval of Hebrews, and the elder 
entered into the mania of the age — the conversion of 
Jews to Christianity. 

Delitzsch : 

The 19th century furnishes a similar instance of 
Christian father and son interested in Hebrew learning, 
Franz and Friedrich Delitzsch. The contributions of 
Franz Delitzsch (1813-1890) toward biblical and gen- 
eral Hebrew literature are very great. He also became 
an ally of the Jews, defending them against slanders 
and exposing the calumny of the "Ritual Murders". This 
friendliness has not been shown by his son Friedrich, 
the Assyriologist, still living, who would rob the Jew 
of priority and leadership in giving to the world re- 
ligious and ethical ideas. 



MANASSEH BEN ISRAEL 



43 



M anas s eh ben Israel : 

Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, 
by Lucien Wolf; Macmillan, 1901. 

Mr. Wolf made the discovery that a community of 
crypto-Jews had been living in England since Charles 
Ps days as Spaniards and that the disguise was natu- 
rally thrown off when England made war with Spain 
in 1656. It was then learnt that there was no law 
against their stay in England, for their banishment in 
1290 was a royal edict, not an act of Parliament. Thus 
the right was won for the Jews already there to remain 
in England. This prepared the way for Manasseh's plea 
that additional Jews be admitted. 

The commercial importance of the Jews at this time 
is thus summarised by Mr. Wolf: "They controlled the 
Spanish and Portugese trade. They had the Levant 
trade largely in their hands. They had helped to found 
the Hamburg bank and were deeply interested in the 
Dutch East and West Indian Companies. Their com- 
mand of bullion too was enormous and their interest in 
shipping was considerable". 

Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, 
Lionel B. Abrahams, /. Q. R., October, 1901. 

The Conciliator of apparent Contradictions in Holy 
Scripture, by Manasseh ben Israel. Translated by Lin- 
do ; Glasgow, Oppenheim & Co. 

Isaac da Fonseca Aboab. Kayserling, "First Jewish 
Author". American Jewish Historical Society publi- 
cations, Vol. v, p. 125. 

These A. I. H. S. publications are recommended to 
those who wish to follow further the persecutions of the 
Jews in South America, particularly vols, iv and vii. 

"England and the Lost Ten Tribes," Hyamson, 
/. 0. R., vol. xv. See "Soul is Likened to the Moon," 
translated by B. Halper in Post-Biblical Hebrezv Litera- 
ture, J. P. S. A. 
Theme for discussion : 

Contrast the Jews with the Puritan. For this purpose 
read "Puritan and Hebrew." /. Q. R., Vol. iii. 




BARUCH SPINOZA 



CHAPTER IV. 



SPINOZA AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES. 

In the comparative quiet that followed the tragic per- 
secutions of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the 
Jews took heart again to cultivate the intellectual life. 
We have seen that in the East this took the form of 
mysticism — carried here and there to dangerous excess. 
We shall now see the West, particularly Italy and Hol- 
land, developing a rationalistic school that here and there 
shades off into scepticism. 

Uriel Acosta. 

The stories of Acosta and Spinoza are characteristic 
illustrations of the latter. Uriel Acosta was born in 
Portugal in 1590, a century after the Jews were ex- 
pelled from Spain. Although brought up as a Christian 
—for he was not even a Marano except by descent — his 
inherited Judaism reasserted itself. With the burning 
zeal of a convert he sacrificed means and position for 
religion. He won over all his family to the new faith — 
or shall we say the old — and they fled to Amsterdam, 
where they could worship the God of Israel without 
disguise. Thus far the story might be duplicated by 
thousands. 

But Acosta was a thinker who formed an ideal con- 
ception of Judaism that he failed to find in actuality 
among his co-religionists in Amsterdam. He wanted a 
biblical, he found a Talmudic Judaism. It was the old 
cry of the Sadducee and the Karaite, "back to the 
Scripture. ,, 

45 



46 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



He issued a volume boldly expounding 'his reform 
views and endeavored to conform his life to them. The 
time was not yet ripe for the individual to regulate his 
life in accordance with his personal religious views. But 
in all times refusal to conform to prevailing custom in- 
vites difficulties. Acosta was excommunicated by the 
Synagogue. Yearning for the companionship of his 
brethren, he made some concessions to the current rites 
and became reconciled to the community. But in the 
meantime his mind had advanced a step further. The 
Bible did not altogether meet his needs. He discerned 
the distinction between Natural Religion, that comes 
from unaided reason instinctive in the human heart, and 
Revealed Religion, that is a supernatural revelation of 
the divine will to chosen prophets and seers. The latter 
he denied, yet it was the accepted view of all creeds, 
Christian as well as Jewish, at that time. 

This attitude led to his being renounced by his family 
and friends. So there he stood alone, spurned and de- 
serted. But his was not a nature that could live a life 
of isolation. To escape this intolerable situation, he sub- 
mitted to a public, humiliating penance; here the Syna- 
gogue may have been unconsciously influenced by 
methods of the Inquisition. But a reaction immediately 
followed; he felt he had been false to himself. So 
broken and embittered, he committed suicide. Whom 
shall we blame, the man or the age? 

Baruch Spinoza. 

Baruch Spinoza was a man more vigorous in mind 
and more sterling in character. He was born in Amster- 
dam in 1632, and received a thorough Jewish training 
from philosophy to Kabala and a thorough secular train- 



SPINOZA AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 



47 



ing in Latin and the sciences. Aboab and Manasseh ben 
Israel were among his teachers. 

He early developed unorthodox opinions and es- 
trangement from his family began. Summoned before 
the Beth Din, he openly avowed his rationalistic and 
free thinking views. The Jewish community, fearing 
that such daring skepticism might imperil the restricted 
rights, granted only on sufferance by the Dutch State, 
offered him a pension of one thousand florins annually, 
if at least he would not give public expression to his 
heterodox views. This he declined. So in self-protection 
the Amsterdam Synagogue excommunicated Spinoza at 
the early age of twenty-three. 

But unlike Uriel Acosta, his peace of mind depended 
not on the companionship of his fellows and he was 
indifferent to their opinion. The Cher em (excommuni- 
cation) did not affect his unruffled calm. A man of 
abstemious habits and few needs, he made a modest 
living as a grinder of lenses; but he wholly lived the 
intellectual life. He became a great thinker, whose writ- 
ings concern not only the Jew, but the world. 

He published most of his works anonymously, for he 
rather shunned than sought fame. One of his great 
productions was Tractatus Theologico-Politicus — a de- 
mand for freedom of thought and speech. It is one of 
the first pleas to separate Religion and State, — now a 
commonplace in American life and thought. 

In his advocacy of freedom of conscience he writes: 
"What can be more fatal a step than to treat as enemies 
men who have committed no other crime than that of 
believing independently/' He shows that such proce- 
dure makes either hypocrites or martyrs. It took the 
world long to learn this lesson. When this daring work 



48 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



first appeared, it roused a storm of condemnation. 

Many disciples gathered about him, and he was con- 
sulted by scholars even at a distance. Yet he refused a 
Heidelberg professorship, lest that might shackle him. 

He was one of the earliest to demonstrate the etern- 
ity and irrefragability of Nature's laws. He was like- 
wise one of the first to examine the Bible in a critical 
spirit, placing it on the same plane with other literary 
products. Here he follows the footsteps of Ibn Ezra, 
(though more frankly), and Messer Leon. (See H. M. 
J. p. 102, note and p. 252. Note p. 116 and page 294.) 
While his repudiation of the synagogue may have in- 
fluenced his unfavorable estimate of Judaism, he not- 
withstanding, depicted the Jewish theocracy as an ideal 
state and the Hebrew prophets as ideal moralists. 

His Philosophy, 

His greatest work, "The Ethics", published after his 
death, has left a lasting influence on the world of phil- 
osophy. To understand it, one should have some ac- 
quaintance with the series of steps in philosophy up to 
his time. Let us endeavor to state it as simply as pos- 
sible. The last word so far had been uttered by Des- 
cartes, who taught dualism; that is he recognized two 
distinct forces in the world — Mind and Matter. Now 
came Spinoza, who only recognized one Substance in- 
cluding both. He does not separate God from Nature. 
Such is styled a pantheist, (all is God.) 

We must distinguish between the popular and the 
philosophic meaning of Substance. Philosophically it 
means a fundamental something which underlies all that 
is. Spinoza defines it as that which needs nothing else 
for its existence. It alone is actual — not only the cause 



SPINOZA AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 



49 



of all being, it is itself all being. This one Substance is 
God. 

Instead then of separating Mind and Matter as dis- 
tinct realms, he makes them different attributes of the 
one God or Substance. Mind (in terms of Time) is 
expressed in Thought — (the ideal.) Matter is demon- 
strated in terms of Space — (extension.) We see both 
inseparably united in man, body , being material and 
soul ideal. 

Individual things (called Modes) are related to the 
One Substance, as the waves of the sea to the sea itself. 
As these rippling waves constantly disappear, they have 
no real being. So it is with individual things — they are 
passing manifestations of God. 

Man has no free will, for he is part of an endless 
series of conditioning causes. Yet knowledge makes 
him free to the extent that it enables him to adapt him- 
self to external influences in a way adequate to his 
nature. This recalls a rabbinic saying "Submit thy will 
to God's, then His will will be thine." 

The highest knowledge is to know God. The highest 
virtue is to love Him. To love God is to live in God. 
To love the perishable, to indulge the passions and emo- 
tions can only bring pain; therefore love the Infinite and 
the soul will enter into changeless joy. (Compare with 
similar thought of Gabirol — H. M. /. p. 81.) 

At first the man was vilified and his work spurned as 
atheistic and dangerous. But after a century and a half 
of neglect, Spinoza was recognized as "the God-intoxi- 
cated Jew" and the father of modern thought. At dif- 
ferent eras he influenced the thought of Leibnitz, Les- 
sing, Goethe, Hegel and through them philosophy in 
general. In modern times from Berthold Auerbach 



50 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



down, Jews have been among his most appreciative ex- 
pounders. 

Yet this man who revolutionized philosophic thought 
and anticipated political liberty, lived but forty-five 
years, dying of consumption in 1677. He lived the 
simple life without consciously being an ascetic. His 
nature was singularly free from the evils that disturb 
the common mortal, jealousy, passion, luxuriousness, 
ambition. Wealth and high office were offered to him. 
He declined both; called an unbeliever, he really was a 
saint. He had the courage of his convictions and as he 
taught, so he lived. 

Some Italian Rationalists. 

Two earlier Italian contemporaries of Spinoza were 
Joseph dei Medigo and Leo Modena. The former was 
a grandson of Elias dei Medigo (H. M. J. p. 295) and 
a wanderer like Ibn Ezra. He was a great scientist and 
a pupil of Galileo. Modena, a Venetian rabbi, had been 
a prodigy as a child and was a wonderfully versatile 
scholar. But while Spinoza was sure of his convictions 
and had the courage of them, both dei Medigo and 
Modena were unstable in character and neither realized 
fully the responsibility of scholarship. Yet both like 
Acosta, demanded a simplified Judaism. But the Syna- 
gogue was yet to wait more than half a century for 
religious reform. 

Jewish Dramatists. 

While writing of the Jews of Holland, a word should 
be said here of a comparatively new role of the Jewish 
writer, that of playwright. The rabbis in the past had 



SPINOZA AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 



51 



opposed attendance at theatres and arenas on strictly 
religious grounds — for although the drama had at times 
been made the medium of exalted genius, there were 
again periods in antiquity when the associations of the 
theatre were often demoralizing. In the middle ages, 
however, in spite of rabbinic protests, many Jews did 
attend the theatre. Around the time when Spinoza 
flourished, Dutch Jews began to dramatize Bible stories, 
particularly Purim comedies. Some of these plays were 
written by exiles from the Peninsula in Spanish and 
Portugese. The Marano Antonio di Gomez was styled 
the "Jewish Calderon" (a Spanish poet and dramatist.) 
In the 18th century Joseph da Silva of Portugal, though 
persecuted as Jew was hailed as dramatist. The his- 
torian Karpeles intimates that he was burned at the 
stake, a Jewish martyr, in Lisbon in 1739, on the very 
evening on which one of his comedies was played. Such 
tragic ironies so often have entered the checkered his- 
tory of Israel. 

While Jews produced dramas in all eras in the 
tongues of nations in which they lived, it was not till the 
17th century that plays were written in Hebrew. Moses 
Zacuto of Amsterdam produced the "Foundation of the 
World'' in 1642. It is the story of Abraham. Joseph 
Penza of the same city produced the "Prisoners of 
Hope" in 1673. 

So while England was revelling in its Shakespearian 
era, Holland was developing a Dutch drama. Most of 
the Hebrew plays of the 17th and 18th centuries were 
similar to the "Morality Plays" of that day. Classic 
dramas were also translated into Hebrew. 



52 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Moses Chaim Luzzatto. 

This mystic of Italy, who touched again the strings 
of Halevi's lyre wrote Hebrew dramatic poems. "Sam- 
son and the Philistine" the 'Tower of Victory" and 
"Praise to the Righteous". They are allegories. He 
has been called the father of modern Hebrew. Here 
is a quotation from his masterpiece "Praise to the 
Righteous," (The Struggle between Truth and False- 
hood) : 

"Truly our eyes are deluded, for eyes of flesh they 
are. Therefore they change truth into falsehood, dark- 
ness they make light, and light darkness. An accident 
suffices to distort our view of tangible things; how 
much more do we stray from the truth with things be- 
yond the reach of our senses. See the oars in the water. 
They seem crooked and twisted. Yet we know them to 
be straight." 

Luzzatto was also an ardent Kabalist and a member 
of a Zohar Society in his native town of Padua. The 
reading of the Zohar was imposed on its members with 
all the sanctity of a Scripture; no profit must be ob- 
tained from it other than spiritual advantage of Israel; 
a stranger was honored and "acquired merit" by being 
permitted to read a portion. 

Notes and References: 

Uriel Acosta: 

A tragedy of this name was written by Gutzkow. It 
has been translated into Hebrew by Solomon Rubin and 
into English by M. Meyer, of New York. See also 
chapter by this name in Zangwill's Dreamers of the 

Ghetto. 

Baruch Spinoza: 

Spinoza's intense monotheism is traceable to his Jew- 
ish instincts. Before he turned to Descartes, he had 



SPINOZA AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 



53 



been a devoted student of Maimonides, Gersonides and 
Chasdai Crescas. (See "Crescas and Spinoza/' by Prof. 
D. Newmark, Year Book Central Conference of Ameri- 
can Rabbis, vol. xviii). 

But Spinoza's One Substance "in whose negative 
abyss everything individual is buried/' is far from satis- 
fying the yearnings of the soul after the living God. 

W. H. White, "Works of Spinoza", English trans- 
lation, Macmillan. 

H. M. Elwes, "Works of Spinoza", English trans- 
lation, Bohn's Philosophic Library, 2 vols., London, 
George Bell.. 

Freudenthal, Sein Leben u. seine Lehre, Stuttgart, 
Fromman, 1904. 

Freudenthal, "History of Spinozism," /. Q. R. vol.viii. 

J. A. Froude, Article "Spinoza", Short Studies on 
Great Subjects, Scribner. 

H. H. Joachim, Study of the Ethics, Oxford Claren- 
don Press. 

J. Royce, "Spinoza", Library of the World's Best 
Literature. 

"A Maker of Lenses". Zangwill's Dreamers of the 
Ghetto. J. P. S. A. 

Ernest Renan, "Leaders of Christian and Anti-Chris- 
tian Thought". 

Jewish Dramatists : 

The Jew has been a frequent type in the drama, from 
Barrabas and Shylock to Fagin and Svengali. Most of 
these delineations may be classed with the persecution of 
the Jew in literature. 

Very many plays have been produced in Yiddish in 
the 19th century. 

Karpeles, "The Jewish Stage" in Jewish Literature and 
Other Essays, J. P. S. A. 

Abrahams, Jewish Life in thi Middle Aqes, Chap xiv. 
J. P. S. A. 

Moses Chaim Luzzato, Dr. Abram S. Isaacs, Modern 
Hebrezv Poet, (N. Y. 1878). See essay I. Landman, 
Year Book C. C. A. R., Vol. xvii. See "Dialogue between 



54 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Understanding and Uprightness" (Luzzatto), trans. 
Halper, Post-Biblical Hebrew Literature, J. P. S. A. 

Slouschz in The Renaissance of Hebrew Literature 
(ch. i, J. P. S. A., 1909) from which the translation on 
p. 52 is taken. 

Themes for Discussion : 

a. Should the Synagogue still claim Spinoza as a 
Jew? 

b. Discuss the versatility in Jewish character and 
genius as demonstrated in the two contemporaries, Sab- 
bathai Zevi, the Messianic adventurer and Spinoza, the 
philosopher. 




AT THE DAMASCUS GATE, JERUSALEM 



CHAPTER V. 



THE PASSING OF POLAND AND THE 
RISE OF RUSSIA. 

Vaad of the 
Four Provinces. 

We have seen that Poland became a haven for the 
Jews from the time of the first Crusade, 1098, and that 
they supplied to that country the need of a middle and 
commercial class. (H. M. J. ch. xxxvi). While clerical 
persecution began to disturb their security at the end of 
the fifteenth century, their condition in Poland was 
never as hapless as it had been in German States. Then 
came Protestantism, bringing with it a wave of liberal- 
ism, which somewhat brightened the Polish outlook 
again. Although through the activity of the Jesuits, 
Catholicism regained its sway, yet the occasional op- 
pressions that followed were not sufficiently severe to 
prevent Poland's continuing to be a growing centre of 
Jewish settlement. From the seventeenth century it con- 
tained more Jews than any other land, Turkey not ex- 
cepted. As the latter was the centre of the Sephardim 
(Spanish and Portuguese), so the former became the 
centre of the Ashkenazim (German). In spite of oc- 
casional bursts of animosity and slanderous charges of 
ritual murders, Polish Jews were largely left to them- 
selves and to their own local administration. So their 
status there was somewhat akin to that of old Baby- 
lonia. (7\ Y. ch. xxxii.) Old privileges that had been 
taken away were nearly all restored again. So they 
were freer here than in any land outside of the Porte 

55 



56 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



both as to choice of occupation and place of residence. 
Of their own accord they lived apart with little con- 
cern in the interests of their surroundings. This by the 
way was not an unmixed good and Jews in Poland are 
suffering from it today. 

What was the character of this separate life led 
by Polish Israel? It was an intensely Jewish life. From 
Poland now "went forth the Law." The rabbis were 
not only their spiritual but also their secular guides ; for 
the Talmud as law and as literature, of which they 
were the chief European authorities, was made the con- 
cern of daily life. It also formed the content of the 
curriculum of their schools (Yeshibath) , making their 
training intensive, though one-sided. The frequent un- 
friendliness of their surroundings explains in part their 
indifference to secular studies without making this neg- 
lect less regrettable. To foster Talmudic study, poor 
students were given free maintenance. The Yeshiba 
methods imparted a manner, style and gesture that be- 
came characteristic of Polish Jews. Talmudic' study 
became a kind of religious ritual, a virtue in itself. In 
a sense it usurped the place of the Bible, though its 
training was a mental discipline rather than a religious 
impetus. Further, Talmudic scholarship gave social 
standing and took the place of wealth. 

The Jews of the four provinces — Little Poland, 
Greater Poland, Russia and Lithuania (the last united 
to Poland in 1659), were organized into separate Jew- 
ish communities, each known as a Kahal. Representa- 
tives of these met two or three times a year in a sort 
of congress styled the Vaad. These conferences were 
more regular than the occasional Synods of earlier days 
and the questions they considered covered a wider sway. 



POLAND PASSES, RUSSIA RISES 



57 



Their work was judicial, administrative and legislative. 
They became permanent courts of appeal for all prac- 
tical needs. Thus the rabbis, granted local jurisdiction 
by the Government, could divorce as well as marry and 
were enabled through the Vaad to settle differences 
without resorting to the outside authorities. This con- 
stant exercise of legal discrimination made them 
keen lawyers but marred somewhat their religious func- 
tion and value. The historian Graetz asserts that it also 
vitiated their ethical sense. This may be too sweep- 
ingly severe. Certainly it may be said that economically 
the prudent, sober and industrious Jews of Poland sup- 
plied a needed human complement to the somewhat un- 
steady Polish nationality. 

The Cossacks. 

All went well until they came in fatal contact with a 
new racial group. To some refugee outlaws known as 
Cossacks, colonies were granted in the Ukraine and 
Little Russia, that they might ward off attacks of Tar- 
tars and Turks. They were followers of the Greek 
Church, i. e., that form of Christianity that had pre- 
vailed in the Roman Empire of the East overthrown by 
the Turks in 1453. The Jesuits, who justified any kind 
of means for furthering Catholicism, made life hard for 
them. This was intensified by the burdensome taxes im- 
posed by the Polish nobility. 

Unfortunately the Jews were made farmers of these 
taxes and even of the Church revenues. The tax-collec- 
tor had always been unpopular since hoary antiquity. 
(Note H. M. J. p. 212.) The Jews were now regarded 
as the oppressors of the tax-payers of Poland, just as 
they had been considered many centuries earlier by the 



58 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



English and French. This very tax- farming had been 
forbidden by a decree of the far-seeing Yaad in 1557, 
but it seems to have been disregarded. To make mat- 
ters worse, the Jewish collectors rather arbitrarily 
lorded it over the hard pressed Cossacks ; for tax-farm- 
ing carried certain powers with it. Alas, a day of 
reckoning came ! Other people might wrong Jews with 
impunity, but if Jews dare wrong others, terrific must 
be the retribution. Terrific was it here. For the Cos- 
sacks rose, under the ruthless leader Chmielnicki, in re- 
bellion against the Poles. This was around 1648, just 
as the Thirty Years War was closing. Next the Rus- 
sians, claiming the Cossacks 'as subjects, proclaimed 
war against Poland. Chmielnicki now made common 
cause with them. The old score against the Jews was 
at last to be repaid with interest. The Poles were de- 
feated and a terrific massacre of the Jews began. They 
remained staunch to the Polish cause and bravely loyal 
to Judaism, when the desertion of either would have 
brought them reprieve. 

In the peace that followed the Jews were banished 
from the Cossack settlements, their places later taken 
by the Russians. At the hands of their former tribut- 
aries, the Cossacks, Poland suffered severely enough ; 
but when Sweden turned its powerful arms against this 
much harassed land, it suffered more severely still. 
This was from 1655 to 1658. Yet it went hardest of all 
with Polish Jewry. 

The Chassidim. 

Poland, still the Jewish centre of gravity, evolved 
another religious sect — the Chassidim. This name, 
meaning pious, had once been taken by a group in 



POLAND PASSES, RUSSIA RISES 



59 



ancient days, who interpreted the law w T ith extreme 
severity and rigidly lived up to their high standards. 
(7. Y . p. 32.) But these latter-day saints did not express 
their piety by extreme obedience to the Law. In fact, 
just as Kabalism was an escape from the dry formulas 
of rabbinic law through the fantasies of mysticism, so 
this neo-Chassidism was yet another attempt to escape 
stereotyped ceremonialism and rabbinic casuistry 
through emotion. 

In times of political unrest people often seek sal- 
vation through religious enthusiasm, occasionally carried 
to the extreme of frenzy. It will be recalled that in 
Judea's darkest day under Roman oppression there had 
appeared a rapid succession of would-be saviours styled 
Messiahs. The demoralization of Polish Jewry that fol- 
lowed the Cossack persecution and the Swedish invasion 
offered a favorable environment for some new religious 
movement. Chassidism ultimately supplied the need. 

Its founder was Israel Baal Shem, who flourished 
about 1740. The second name is rather a title, "Master 
of the Name" (of God). From Kabalistic times those 
versed in magical use of the name of God composed of 
the four Hebrew letters YHVH, were supposed to be able 
to perform miracles. So the title conveys in part the nature 
of his activity. He was regarded as a healer — exorcis- 
ing disease, not by medicine but by prayer. But the 
masses that followed him were won rather by his simple 
sincere and lovable personality. With unquestioning 
faith they accepted his teachings. 

What were they? It has already been intimated at 
the opening of this chapter that the movement he found- 
ed was a protest against rabbinism ; among other things 
a protest against its pinning all faith to learning and 



60 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



legal lore. As against the rabbinic dictum, En Am-ha- 
arete chasid ("An ignorant man cannot be pious") one 
of Baal Shem's disciples taught "Where there is much 
study there is little piety". Here was revolt indeed 
against the hierarchy of the Polish Yeshibath. 

Now to come to his more positive teaching. He laid 
great emphasis on the omnipresence of God. This he 
carried to a pantheistic extreme, almost identifying God 
with Nature. He, rather than Spinoza, should have been 
called "the God intoxicated". 

Like the Kabalists he believed profoundly in prayer 
and in its power to influence the divine will. But such 
prayer must not be the body's craving for boons, but 
the soul's yearning for exaltation in communion with its 
Maker. This implied a state of ecstacy usually attained 
through wild gesticulation. The Chassid then sought 
fulfilment of religion not in learning but in faith ; not 
in asceticism but in cheer. Humility should mark his 
relation to others, optimism his outlook on life, song its 
expression. The unlettered and the women-folk, the 
two less esteemed classes, were among his most enthus- 
iastic followers. Naturally his movement did not take 
such a strong hold in the north Polish centres of learn- 
ing, as among the southern village folk of Podolia and 
the Ukraine. Like the Essenes, the Chassidim affected 
frequent ablutions and white clothing, especially on the 
Sabbath. 

So far, here was a genuine religious revival, a turn- 
ing from the rut of legal formulas to spiritual sources. 
But the best of the movement ended with the death of 
its founder. Israel Baal Shem's mantle did not fall on 
any disciple's shoulders. 

The theory developed that only to a few was given the 



POLAND PASSES, RUSSIA RISES 



61 



power of complete communion with God, which carried 
with it miraculous gifts. Such a one was called a 
Zaddik (righteous). Soon we see a series of men, 
claiming to be Zaddikim and gaining the worship of the 
credulous masses, who came to them with rich gifts to 
work wonders on their behalf. "Wonder-working rab- 
bis" they were called. Here was temptation for the 
unscrupulous adventurer to pose as a Zaddik and gain 
at once wealth and allegiance. Starting then as a needed 
protest against the casuistic legalism of the Academies 
that dried up religious emotion — Chassidism soon de- 
generated into a worship of wonder-working Zaddikim 
by the unintelligent masses, who looked upon them as 
mediators between God and man and who sought the 
cheerful serenity taught by Baal Shem, through arti- 
ficial stimulants. 

The movement at first rapidly spread through Eastern 
Europe. The breaking up of Jewish centralization in 
Poland through the disbanding of the Vaad, aided its 
propaganda. Rut it met with opposition both from the 
rabbinites on the one side and of rationalists on the 
other. Though it declined in numbers as well as in 
spiritual force, it still has tenacious life, even to this 
day. 

Partition of Poland. 

Poland had been declining ever since the Jagellon 
dynasty ended in 1572, when the crown became elective. 
Since its dual defeat a century later it was more and 
more at the mercy of its avaricious neighbors. At last 
Prussia, Austria and Russia decided to seize the weak 
State and divide it among themselves. The partition 
occurred in three stages — the first in 1772, the second in 



62 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



1793, the third in 1795. In this way Prussia acquired 
Posen, Austria obtained Galicia, while to Russia there 
fell the prime spoils of "White Russia/' Lithuania and 
Courland. Poland as a nation was wiped off the map. 
Most of the Polish Jews found themselves under Mus- 
covite Russian rule. What was this to mean? A mere 
change of masters, as when Greece conquered Persia 
twenty-one centuries earlier? It took long before the 
significance of the change dawned upon the Jews and 
upon the world. 

Russia. 

A word should here be said about this country and 
its people. 

Russia was comparatively a late comer into the family 
of nations. Jewish settlements even preceded theirs. Some 
Jews settled to the south east of what was later Russia, 
as early as the Babylonian Exile (600 b. c. e.) it is said. 
Small groups drifted in from that time on. Later still 
many more came from the eastern half of the Roman 
Empire and became sufficiently numerous and influen- 
tial to convert a people known as the Chazars located 
there (H. M. J., Chap. v.). 

The Russians who now arrived in vast numbers and 
took possession of this East European area, were a 
Slavic people from Asia made up in part of Mongolians 
and Tartars. They established centers in Kieff and 
Moscow. A generation before Columbus ^ discovered 
America, Ivan III, the first to be called Czar, consoli- 
dated the kingdom. 

Here as in early Poland Jewish settlers helped de- 
velop its resources ; nor was their lot in those early days 
altogether an unhappy one, but their attempts to make 



POLAND PASSES, RUSSIA RISES 



63 



proselytes to Judaism was put down with an iron hand. 
Ivan IV, deservedly styled "The Terrible/' drowned 
those whom he did not succeed in baptizing. 

Then came the Romanoffs in 1613 (seven years be- 
fore the Pilgrims landed in Plymouth.) As the Slavs 
extended their conquests over what came to be called 
White Russia and the Ukraine, many Israelites were 
brought under their sway. Their's was a checkered 
career with occasional gleams of light. 

A new era began for Russia when Peter deservedly 
styled "The Great" mounted the throne in 1682. This 
Czar reformer, it is said, broke through a window into 
Europe. That is, he endeavored to bring something of 
Western enlightenment into his barbaric country though 
the civilization he brought was but skin deep. Although 
he shared some of the prevalent prejudice and miscon- 
ceptions about the Jews, he was not ill disposed toward 
them. In time of war he prevented their massacre. In- 
deed, it may be put down almost as a dictum that a 
Russian monarch enlightened in dealing with his sub- 
jects in general, has usually been liberal toward the Jew. 
The reverse principle, alas, alike holds true; and, when 
Peter was succeeded by three narrow minded Queens, 
Catherine, Anna and Elizabeth, the Jews naturally suf- 
fered in consequence of their bigotry, for they were 
women of the Spanish Isabella type who persecuted 
Israel on strictly religious grounds. 

Their lot was certainly better under the broader 
minded Catherine II (1762-1796). They were given 
more freedom in the observance of their religion, in 
their places of settlement, and in their occupations. 
When it came to seeking further civic rights, their in- 
ability to speak the language of the country put them 



64 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



at a disadvantage. The bulk only understood Juedisch- 
Deutsch. 

Under Catherine began Poland's partition. This made 
Russia ultimately the home of the larger half of the 
Jews of the world. A Jewish problem was henceforth 
presented in that country. In 1791 Catherine II sought 
to solve it by instituting the 'Tale of Settlement ,, — i. e., 
that portion of Russia wherein Jews might reside. Its 
area has varied under different Czars. Roughlyj, it 
covered about one-twenty-third of the Russian Empire. 
(See map of Pale.) Again, Jews were allowed resi- 
dence in some places not included in the Pale. But 
restrictions increased. The tendency grew to forbid to 
the Jews anything not granted by special law. 

The 

Nineteenth Century. 

They experienced a change for the better in the benefi- 
cent reign of the fair-minded Paul I, who extended 
citizenship to the Jews of Courland and stopped the 
previous practice of expelling them from the towns; 
scholars, artisans and farmers were exempt from all 
disabilities. This liberal policy was continued under 
Alexander I (1801-1825). He raised Russia to the first 
rank among European States. Hisj policy has been 
styled that of Enlightened Absolutism. But a reaction 
set in under his successor, Nicholas I (1825-1855) ; this 
meant forced baptisms into the Church and forced con- 
scriptions into the army. Even the plan to give the 
Jews a broader education and to turn many to agricul- 
ture was vitiated by the avowed purpose of undermining 
their religion thereby. Heavy taxation, expulsion from 
villages, especially of those dwelling along the border, 



POLAND PASSES, RUSSIA RISES 



65 



and local tyrannies all tended to the impoverishment of 
the Russian Jews. This oppression by the government 
had the further damaging effect in that it fostered the 
attitude of contempt for the Jews in the minds of the 
people at large and widened the gulf between Jew and 
Gentile. 

But a new order of things began under the enlight- 
ened and beneficent sway of Alexander II, who will 
always be gratefully remembered by mankind as the 
liberator of the twenty-two million serfs in 1861. He 
organized his government on liberal lines and introduced 
many humane reforms. This was reflected favorably in 
all industries, in the advance of science, and in a freer 
press. He was the monarch who abolished corporal 
punishment, introduced trial by jury and the local Zemst- 
vos, that is, district assemblies. • Liberal to Russia in 
general, it naturally followed that he was benignant 
towards his Jewish subjects. He opened the elementary 
and high schools to them, and permitted their scholars, 
artisans and wholesale merchants to settle outside the 
Pale, under some limitations ; though his officials often 
evaded his kindly intent. The Jews on their part en- 
couraged more liberal education, and produced quite a 
literature in pure Hebrew and in Russian. 

Among other notable scholars we may mention Daniel 
Chwolson, an Orientalist, who though he left the Jewish 
faith, remained a staunch ally of the Jewish people. 
Much of his scholarly research was given to expose the 
slander of the Blood Accusation ; in defending the Tal- 
mud against its detractors; in demonstrating the ground- 
lessness of the charge that the Jews crucified Jesus. He 
further brought his researches to bear to show the 
superiority of the Jewish race. 



66 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



ADraham Harkavy, famous historian and philologist, 
did much to promote culture among his brethren. 

Furthermore, the Russian Jews began to identify 
themselves more closely with Russia's welfare. On the 
other hand, following the royal example, Russian society 
likewise evinced a more liberal attitude toward Israel, 
thus encouraging the spread of general culture among 
them. This kindly sway of the man whom Disraeli 
called the most benevolent prince that ever ruled in Rus- 
sia, was quietly solving the Jewish problem. To come 
into more congenial relation with their surroundings, 
Jews were dropping those exclusive customs that kept 
them aloof from their fellow countrymen, and were 
entering socially and intellectually into the great world. , 

Reaction. 

Alas, in 1881 the bomb of an anarchist brought the 
career of this enlightened Czar to an untimely close. 
For alarmed at the spread of liberalism, he, yielding to 
his illiberal advisers, had begun to show a restrictive 
tendency toward the end of his reign. His son, Alex- 
ander III, a thorough-going reactionary, turned back the 
hands on the dial of time. All the privileges granted by 
his predecessor were removed, and the tragic history 
of modern Russian Jewry now began. His policy was 
endorsed and re-enforced by Pobiedenotseff the Pro- 
curator General of the Greek Church, a second Tor- 
quemada, with his Panslavic program ( complete domin- 
ance of the Slavic Church and the Slavic race). He 
brutally voiced Russia's proposed solution of the Jew- 
ish problem as follows : One-third would be forced to 
emigrate, one-third would be forced into the Church and 
the rest reduced to starvation. King and priest to- 



POLAND PASSES, RUSSIA RISES 



67 



gether made life intolerable for the Russian Jews. 
The reign began with a series of pogroms (riots) 
against the Jews, secretly fomented by the government 
and aided by the military and police. The purpose was 
to divert the popular antagonism away from the Czar 
— once more in history the Jew was made the scape- 
goat. In nearly two hundred places homes were des- 
troyed, families ruined and many slain. This treatment 
roused the indignation of the entire civilized world. 

The barbaric 
May Laws. 

In May, 1882, a series of harsh laws against the Jews 
were put into operation. Except a minute per cent, 
they were excluded from high schools and universities. 
They were gradually excluded from all civil posts and 
all public offices, and were not allowed to hold landed 
property. Most cruel of all — on summary notice, they 
were expelled from the villages and forced into towns, — 
thus creating a Pale within the Pale, This meant the 
ruin of millions. This inhuman law, local officials still 
more inhumanly administered. A converted Jew or 
Jewess could by entering the Church, be freed from 
marriage and enter into an alliance with an Orthodox 
Christian. Children of the age of 14 could join the 
Church without parental permission. Converts to Chris- 
tianity received monetary compensation, thus placing a 
premium on apostasy. Jews conducting divine worship 
in their homes without permission, were to be punished 
by law. In addition to the ordinary taxes, Jews were 
further to be taxed on all meats slaughtered according 
to Jewish ritual, on their Sabbath lights, orT house rents, 
on profits of their factories and on their clothing. All 



68 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Jews of the age of 20 should serve five years in the 
active army and thirteen in the reserve, but no Jew 
could become an officer or even an officer's servant. 
Alexander died unrepentant in 1894. 

Nicholas II, his successor, superstitious and vacillat- 
ing, was at the mercy of adventurers. Under his rule, 
the same repressive policy was continued down to this 
twentieth century and further expulsions were carried 
out. Violent pogroms broke out against the Jews that 
began in Kishineff in 1903, in Homel in the following 
year, and continued intermittently in other places until 
they reached Bialystok. Thus the Russian Jews, re- 
duced to poverty by legislation, were thankful when 
they were not massacred. Public opinion forced the 
calling of a Parliament — the Douma — but it meant little 
for the people and less for the Jews. 

When the Russian people, suffering under tyrannical 
restrictions, asked for a constitution, which was finally 
given, they were deliberately told that the Jews were 
really at the bottom of all their troubles. This resulted 
in inciting the ignorant masses to further pogroms in the 
first week of November, 1905. The casualties were over 
2,100 and the money loss exceeded $25,000,000. Some 
37,000 families were tragically affected. 

A sturdy few changed privation into opportunity by 
turning from trades to handicrafts and agriculture. 
Some were aided by the benevolence of their co-religion- 
ists throughout the world in various ways. Others have 
solved their lot by leaving this country of Egyptian 
darkness and emigrating to more enlightened lands, to 
Western Europe, to Great Britain and her colonies, to 
South America, and chiefly to the United States. 



poland passes, russia rises 
Notes and References: 



69 



Poland. 

"History of the Jews in Poland and Russia,'' 3 vols., 
S. M. Dubnow, trans, by I. Friedlander, J. P. S. A. 

Jezvish Dialects. 

J uedisch-D eutsch : This was a mixture of old High 
German dialects with some Hebrew words. 

Ladino : This common speech of Turkish Jews was a 
mixture of Spanish w T ith Hebrew. By the same process, 
some Russian and some English words have crept into 
the Yiddish of today. This is more fully treated in a 
later chapter. 

Chassidim : 

Schechter, Studies in Judaism, J. P. S. A., 1st Series. 

Persecution of Russian Jews: 
Pamphlet, J. P. S. A. 

Persecution of the Jews from Kishineff to Bialystok, 
Jewish Year Book, Vol. 5667, J. P. S. A. 

Theme for Discussion: 

Show the influence of environment on religion in the 
kinds of Judaism developed in Turkey, in Poland and 
in the latter day Orient. 



CHAPTER VI 



MOSES MENDELSSOHN 
(Germany) 

The last paragraphs in the preceding chapter brought 
us ahead of our story and near to the present time. Let 
us turn again to the 18th century and to the Jews of 
Germany. Germany was still but a geographical ex- 
pression including many independent States. Our story 
takes us to the most powerful of them all, Prussia. 

Early Struggles. 

It is not unusual to begin the life of Moses Mendels- 
sohn with the year 1743, when as a hunch-backed, stut- 
tering boy of fourteen, a bundle of clothes on his back, 
he knocked at the Rosenthaler gate of Berlin. This 
Talmud Bachur came not "to seek his fortune", but to 
sit at the feet of his old teacher, Rabbi Frankel. His 
hunger for learning was greater than his hunger for 
bread — and both at first were indifferently satisfied. His 
whole intellectual equipment when admitted to Berlin, 
was an ability to read the rabbinic commentaries of the 
Scriptures and to speak Juedisch-Deutsch. Yet, with a 
book picked up here and there — to buy which he often 
denied himself food — with an occasional hint from an 
occasional friend, he groped his way through the avenues 
of knowledge. His rabbinic training as a mental disci- 
pline stood him in good stead. He learnt successively 
German, Latin, French and English, and later Greek, 
taking in mathematics through a Hebrew T translation of 
Euclid's Geometry. Then he sailed gradually into the 
higher realms of thought, studying philosophy from the 

71 



72 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Greek Plato down to the English Locke. This was all 
done in the hours stolen from his leisure, when his daily 
work as a silk-mercer's clerk was over. Later in life a 
partnership in his employer's business gave him ampler 
ease and opportunity to indulge his love of learning. 

Knowledge finds its own. He was soon a welcome 
member in a cultured group that met in a "coffee-house". 
An acquaintance with chess was a passport too. Thus 
he came to know Lessing, one of Germany's literary 
geniuses. That friendship marked an epoch in his life. 
For Lessing put into print the "Philosophic Conversa- 
tions" of the modest scholar who would not have sought 
publicity for himself. Germany awoke to find that the 
Ghetto had given another teacher to the world. 

Soon this man whose mother tongue was a corrupt 
patois, was teaching German style to the German. He 
dared rebuke King Frederick the Great for slighting the 
language of his country; for he preferred French and 
Voltaire. In spite of this daring, which may be but a 
legend, he was. made a "Court Jew" (p. 21). Not his 
superior philosophy, but his superior diction, won for 
his essay the Royal Academy of Science prize, with 
Immanuel Kant, greatest modern philosopher, as one 
of his competitors. 

"Phaedon," — Immortality. 

But he also became a religious teacher to the sceptical 
world of the eighteenth century. It was this son of 
Israel who revived the waning faith in the immortality 
of the soul, thereby carrying out the Jewish mission to 
"bring light to the Gentiles." He paraphrased Plato's 
"Phaedo," a dialogue on the subject, and further de- 
veloped the theme. Accepting God's existence as a 



MOSES MENDELSSOHN 



73 



postulate without further proof, his chief arguments 
are: 

(a) If the body (matter) does not perish, but passes 
into other forms, surely the soul that dominates the body 
is imperishable. 

(b) We find this immortal belief implanted in our 
being and we cannot conceive that God would deceive 
his children by imbuing them w T ith a false hope. 

(c) He followed up this demonstration with the in- 
ference, so much needed in that sceptical hour, that life 
is a charge, not an absolute possession; therefore man 
has no right to extinguish it; for an almost pagan ir- 
responsibility towards life was prevalent in some circles 
in the 18th century. 

Mendelssohn, who had never seen the inside of a uni- 
versity, had now w r on a European reputation. He was 
called the modern Socrates and litterateurs crowded his 
salon. His home became to many a literary center and 
to some even a shrine. 

Jew and Christian. 

As a consequence of this work, one of his admirers, 
Lavater, a Swiss clergyman, dedicated to him his 
"Proofs of Christianity'' actually expecting Mendels- 
sohn to endorse it. So little was Judaism understood, 
it w r as not supposed that Mendelssohn's views could be 
those of the Synagogue. Lavater's challenge was a 
temptation to cut his associations with the Ghetto, 
its restrictions and its humiliations and enter un- 
trammeled into the) Gentile world. But Mendels- 
sohn was not only a great mind, he was a great 
soul. He did not even seek to save the situation by a 



74 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



policy of silence. He replied to the invitation to enter 
the Church to this effect : 

"Of the essentials of my Faith I am so indisputably 
assured that I shall ever adhere to it. The doctrines of 
the despised Judaism are more consistent with reason 
than those of Christianity. For it consists of natural 
religion' (p. 46) supplemented by certain statutes/' 

Mendelssohn 
as Emancipator. 

The reply brought out quite a pamphlet literature and 
[Mendelssohn's courage made him more esteemed than 
ever. But he now turned his attention to his own people. 
He was destined to be their emancipator both from 
without and from within. 

In Mendelssohn's day the milder persecutions of 
badge, Ghetto. Leibzoll (body tax), religious prejudice, 
economic exclusion and social contempt, had done their 
best to bemean the Jew, making him abject in spirit. 
His language, manners, dress, and modes of livelihood 
were so many makeshifts. We have seen that his re- 
ligion had become for the most part a Talmudic train- 
ing, tempered by Kabalistic mysticism. The realm of 
general culture was a terra incognita. In fact all secular 
study was rigidly prohibited. Naphthali Herz Wessely, 
Mendelssohn's worthiest disciple (who later carried on 
his emancipating work) thus describes the state of edu- 
cation among the Jews of the eighteenth century: 

"They are ignorant of the rules of Hebrew, of the 
beauty of its diction and its poetry. Much less are they 
acquainted with the languages of the people among 
whom they live ; some can neither read nor write them. 
The construction of the globe, the events of history and 
the principles of civil law, of natural and scientific phil- 



MOSES MENDELSSOHN 



75 



osophy, are altogether hidden things to them. They are 
not properly acquainted with the fundamental principles 
of their Faith : nor are they taught morality or psychol- 
ogy in their schools. " 

We may add to all this, that economic restrictions 
kept the masses in poverty. 

Internal Emancipation. 

Mendelssohn sought the renaissance of Israel in two 
directions — cultural and religious. Culture was to come 
through the open avenue of a modern language — Ger- 
man, and in awakening in the Ghetto Jew an aesthetic 
sense. The religious regeneration of "the people of the 
book" must come from "the Book." The Bible had 
never been consciously neglected ; but it had been lost in 
its own Talmudic /elaboration. Hd therefore served 
both ends by translating the Pentateuch into German. 
Hebrew letters made the alien forbidden tongue less of- 
fensive. His commentary to the text, in which Wessely 
assisted, opened many doors of knowledge. A para- 
phrase of the Psalms followed. In spite of his safe- 
guards, some of the elders looked at it dubiously, but it 
was hailed by young Jewry. Thus Mendelssohn's trans- 
lation of the Bible had almost as great an influence on 
the Jews as Luther's on the Christians. It gave birth 
to a band of Jewish authors who gradually learned to 
write, not in corrupt "Hebrew-German," but in pure 
Hebrew and in pure German. These Hebrew writers 
were called Measscfim (collectors). Their contributions 
were issued through a periodical "Ha-Meassef" ; the sub- 
jects included literature generally, in prose and poetry, 
science, biography and history. 



76 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



External Emancipation. 

Thus the inner cultural emancipation was begun. The 
outer, political, was aided by Lessing's "Nathan der 
Weise." This great drama was among other things a 
plea for the legitimacy of Judaism and Mohammedan- 
ism as against the Church that claimed the monopoly of 
truth and virtue. So Lessing skillfully chooses his 
heroes from the despised cults. Nathan, the hero, is his 
friend Mendelssohn; Saladin was one of the noblest of 
Moslems. 

Communities in surrounding lands now sought Men- 
delssohn to plead through him for the removal of their 
disabilities, for he was the most influential Jew of the 
age. He found he could best serve them through his 
powerful friends. So at his instigation his dis- 
tinguished ally, Dohm, as daring as Lessing, produced a 
work on "The Civil Amelioration of the Condition of 
the Jews," in 1781. The times were propitious: 

(1) Montesquieu had pleaded for the Jews in his 
"Spirit of the Laws," and other Frenchmen were soon 
to follow. 

(2) Naturalization had already been granted to the 
Jews by the English, in their American colonies. 

(3) The enlightened Joseph II of Austria allowed 
the Jews to take up handicrafts and agriculture; — (to 
think they should ever have been denied!) He also es- 
tablished Jewish schools. 

Mendelssohn's own plea was put in the form of a 
work called "Jerusalem, or Ecclesiastical Powers and 
Judaism" — in 1783. It was a plea for civil rights based 
on the philosophic ground that as belief cannot be com- 
manded, the State should grant the widest liberty of 
thought and speech in religion and should sit in judg- 



MOSES MENDELSSOHN 



77 



ment only on the deeds of men. Here he showed the 
influence of Spinoza with whose philosophy, however, 
he did not agree. He called Judaism, not a revealed 
religion, but a revealed legislation. To place emphasis 
on duties rather than on beliefs has always been a char- 
acteristic of Judaism. 

When Mendelssohn died in 1786 at the comparatively 
early age of fifty-seven, he had created an epoch in Jew- 
ish history. His career exemplifies true genius. In 
spite of physical drawbacks, poverty, social exclusion, 
political disability from without, and intellectual restric- 
tions within — he broke through all barriers, sectarian, 
social and cultural, and he became one of the teachers 
of Europe, a founder of a new school of disciples and of 
literature, and the religious and political emancipator 
of his people. 

Solomon Maim on. 

A contemporary and disciple of Mendelssohn was 
Solomon Maimon. His autobiography is valuable, not 
only for the revelation of his intellectual development 
"from Polish ignorance to pure philosophy/' but also as 
a faithful picture of his times. Here we have depicted 
the savage cruelty of the Polish nobility and soldiery 
together with the savage ignorance of the Polish peas- 
antry. Among the Jews we have revealed the repulsive 
cheder (school-room), the narrow exclusion of se- 
cular studies, and languages, the prevalence of supersti- 
tion, the abuses of the Chassidim, the asceticism and the 
idealism of the pious and the grinding poverty of the 
great majority. 

As with Mendelssohn, Maimonides' More Nebuchim 
"Guide to the Perplexed" (H. M. J., Chap xx.) was 



78 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Maimon's emancipator, hence his adopted name. His 
keen mind grasped at once the errors in the philosophy 
of Leibnitz and Wolf and he was able to expound the 
English philosopher Locke at a first reading. He also 
discovered that the theory of Spinoza was not atheistic 
but rather the reverse — acosmic, i. e., denial of exis- 
tence of the world rather than of God. 

Yet this vigorous intellect achieved nothing beyond 
his autobiography. He remained an intellectual vaga- 
bond and he failed because he lacked — character. His 
very scepticism was part of his defect of soul. He 
throws a helpful sidelight on the nature of Mendelssohn 
— his own moral reverse. He shows the "Jewish So- 
crates/' a Hillel in his calm, a stoic in his strength of 
denial. We see again in Maimon's pages Mendels- 
sohn's mental depth, his impatience with trifles, his sym- 
pathetic imagination and his inherent philanthropy. 

Notes and References : 

Mendelssohn and Lessing. 

Mendelssohn and Lessing, the David and Jonathan of 
literature, stimulated each other, where less noble 
natures might have found cause for rivalry. Lessing 
fed the poetic and artistic side of Mendelssohn ; Men- 
delssohn fostered the philosophic in Lessing and mater- 
ially aided him in his difficulties. 

Immortality. 

The Jew is sometimes charged with disbelief in im- 
mortality. But against, the current view that the Jewish 
Scriptures do not teach a future life, the following texts 
may be cited: Daniel xii, 2, 3; Ecclesiastes xii, 7; Isaiah 
xxv, 8 and xxvi, 19; Proverbs xii, 28 and xxiii, 18; 
Psalm xlix 16; Psalm xvi, 10, 11 ; Psalm xvii, 15; Psalm 
cxvi, 3 — 9 ; also in the Apocrypha : Wisdom of Solomon, 



MOSES MENDELSSOHN 



79 



i, 15 ; fi, 23 ; iii, 1 to 5 ; iv, 1 ; viii, 13 and 17 ; xv, 3. The 
Rabbinic writings are saturated with belief in the Resur- 
rection and Immortality and it forms the thirteenth ar- 
ticle of Maimonides' creed. Many references will also be 
found in the Jewish Prayer Book. 

See Montefiore — /. Q. R., Vol. xii, 372; vol. xiv, 96. 

M endelssohn's "Jerusalem." 

The statement that Judaism is a legislation, not a 
creed, has led to the inference that Mendelssohn denied 
dogmas to Judaism. This he partially corrects in a let- 
ter to Herr Elkan (Monatschrift, Leipsic, 1859). His 
contention rather was that the dogmas of Judaism were 
such as would appeal to rational minds — to those in- 
herent religious instincts called natural religion. 

See in this connection Schechter, Studies in Judaism, 
First Series — "Dogmas of Judaism," J. P. S. A., also 
Matthew Arnold, Literature and Dogma. Ch. i. 

"Jerusalem," by Isaac Leeser, The Occident, Vol. ix, 
1851. 

Translations — Mendelssohn's "Introduction to Penta- 
teuch," and Wessely on "Education," Hebrew Review, 
London, 1859. 

See Karpeles' Jewish Literature and other Essays, on 
Jewish society in the time of Mendelssohn. 

Abrahams' Jewish Literature, Ch. xxi. 

Meassefim. 

Renaissance of Hebrew Literature. Ch. ii, Slouschz, 
J. P. S. A., 1909. 

Maimon, by Murray; Translation of his Autobi- 
ography, Cupples and Hurd, Boston, 1888. 

Themes for Discussion: 

a. Has Judaism dogmas? What is the distinction 
between a creed, a doctrine and a dogma? Show how 
Judaism diverges from Christianity in its attitude 
towards dogma. 

b. Discuss "the Story of the Three Rings" in Les- 
sing's "Nathan der Weise". 




OLD ROTHSCHILD HOUSE, FRANKFURT 



CHAPTER VII. 



THE POST-MENDELSSOHN ERA. 

Although Wessely, Mendelssohn's poet disciple, took 
up the thread of his master's work in furthering the 
study of the Bible and the pursuit of general culture and 
modern tongues, he met much opposition from the 
elders, who had not yet outgrown the prejudice that 
secular learning was in a sense sinful. But the young 
followed him, though at first stealthily. 

The reforms of the Mendelssohn school involved a 
revival of pure Hebrew as well as the cultivation of Ger- 
man and French. So while establishing academies and 
publishing secular books for Jewish use, societies for 
Hebrew culture were launched and Hebrew magazines 
were issued to reawaken a literary sense. The new 
school produced some enthusiastic disciples. The times, 
if not the school, produced Marcus Herz, physician, 
philosopher and scientist, and Fanny Itzig, who estab- 
lished a literary salon in Vienna. 

Culture and 
its Perils. 

Mental emancipation was not without its dangers. 
Once the gates were opened, some, lured by the dazzle 
of the great world, wandered too far and never re- 
turned. "Liberal" views degenerated into sceptical 
views; and when bigoted state laws excluded Jews, un- 
less baptized, from public posts and professions, in- 
volving social exclusion also — some in this sceptical 
frame of mind — crossed that "Rubicon." David Fried- 

81 



82 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



lander, who sought a sophistical compromise of Jewish 
monotheism with Church conformity, was a typical in- 
stance. 

Naturally it was the intellectuals who were most ex- 
posed to this temptation, for they most felt the Ghetto 
fetters and most chafed against Ghetto exclusion. There 
was such a chasm between their cultural and their legal 
standing ! Some even turned against their? own un- 
tutored brethren, and judging only by the crude ex- 
ternals, came to regard them with something of the 
same prejudice that was exhibited by Gentiles. Some 
went so far as to despise all Jewish traditions. 

This was the backwash of emancipation. It was too 
sudden to be healthy. Every good may have its draw- 
backs. But the only cure for liberty's abuse is further 
liberty. Israel un-Ghettoed, could be saved to itself 
only by a triple process : First, by a religious reform or 
simplification that would bring the synagogue more in 
accord with their newer spiritual need ; second, by politi- 
cal emancipation that would bring their secular status in 
harmony with their intellectual outlook; and thirdly, by 
a truer knowledge of themselves and their heritage, that 
would give a deeper appreciation of their dignity and 
their mission. All of these were to come. 

In the meantime emancipation brought havoc in its 
extreme reaction and, strange to say, the children of 
Mendelssohn were the first victims. Dorothea in an ec- 
stacy of romanticism, drifted into the Catholic Church; 
the cultured Henrietta followed her footsteps later; 
Abraham advised his son Felix, the famous musician, to 
accept Christianity as an expediency, and to adopt the 
name of Bartholdy. The Berlin salon of Henrietta, 
wife of Marcus Herz, and that of the equally gifted 



THE POST-MENDELSSOHN ERA 



83 



Rachel Levin, brought Jewish youth into close social 
contact with the Gentiles before they were ready for it, 
and many estrangements from Jews and Judaism fol- 
lowed. The whole atmosphere of these salons, brilliant 
though they were, was unhealthy, for they reflected the 
religious scepticism and the moral decline of Germany 
in general. It was a trifling age that played with re- 
ligion and with life. 

Prussia witnessed many apostasies from Judaism. But 
some of the converts experienced a change of heart 
later in life. Rachel Levin, who entered the Church 
and became the wife of Varnhagen von Ense, confessed 
on her death bed that her Jewish birthright, once des- 
pised as a misfortune, she would not now willingly lose. 

He in rich Heine. 

Among those who drifted from the fold was Heinrich 
Heine. He reluctantly submitted to baptism with his 
family's approval for it was the only condition on which 
he could practice the profession of law. He was per- 
haps Germany's greatest lyric poet. He also won liter- 
ary fame through his essays in French, for his checkered 
career was passed in two countries. He lived a sad and 
not a very long life, marked by adversity and suffering. 
He concealed a nature gentle and considerate, under a 
scoffing exterior. For he carefully spared his mother all 
knowledge of his wasting illness and had a separate 
copy of his later poems printed for her from which all 
allusion to his malady had been carefully expunged. 
His poems have been translated by Emma Lazarus. 
Here is one, a sonnet to his mother : — 

"I have been wont to bear my forehead high — 
My stubborn temper yields with no good grace, 



84 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



The king himself might look me in the face, 
And yet I would not downward cast mine eye. 
But I confess, dear mother, openly, 
However proud my haughty spirit swell, 
When I within thy blessed presence dwell, 
Oft am I smit with shy humility. 
Is it thy soul, with secret influence, 
Thy lofty soul piercing all shows of sense, 
Which soareth, heaven-born, to heaven again? 
Or springs it from sad memories that tell 
How many a time I caused thy dear heart pain, 
Thy gentle heart, that loveth me so well I" 

It is interesting to note that he confesses a sincere 
contrition for having relinquished his Jewish birthright 
for worldly advance. He writes : — - 

"I do not make a secret of my Jewish allegiance, to 
which I have not returned, because I have never ab- 
jured it. I was no apostate from aversion to Judaism. 
Even symbolically I do not consider baptism of any im- 
portance, and I shall only dedicate myself more entirely 
to upholding the rights of my unhappy brethren. But, 
nevertheless, I find it beneath my dignity and a taint 
upon my honor, to allow myself to be baptized in order 
to hold office in Prussia. I understand very well the 
Psalmist's words : 'Good God. give me my daily bread, 
that I may not blaspheme thy name !' " 

Elsewhere he says: — 

"Now I perceive that the Greeks were only handsome 
youths, but the Jews have always been powerful men. 
I am proud of the fact that I am a descendant of those 
martyrs, who have given a God of morality to the world, 
and who have thought and suffered on all the battle- 
fields of thought. They are the 'Swiss Guard' of deism. 

"Jews may console themselves for the loss of Jerusa- 
lem and the Ark of the Covenant ; these are trifling when 



THE POST- MENDELSSOHN ERA 



85 



compared to the Bible ; that indescribable treasure they 
have saved from the wreck of the Roman Empire. I 
owe the reawakening of my religion to that holy book. ,, 

But these later reflections belong rather to the second, 
the synthetic stage of the post-Mendelssohn era. For 
we must consider now in detail the three different means 
above referred to by which the Jews were to be saved 
from the dangers of emancipation. In this chapter we 
will only consider the first, religious reform. 

Religious Reform. 

The early steps towards religious regeneration had to 
be negative. First, by exclusion J this implied the sever- 
ing of certain foreign growths, not intrinsically Jewish 
but which had come to adhere to Judaism in its different 
lands of sojourn, like barnacles to a ship; such were 
folk-customs, that had become ceremonials, ancient 
superstitions and Kabalistic phantasies. The next pro- 
gressive achievement was simplification. This was at- 
tained by lessening the unwieldly ceremonial that 
threatened to smother the spiritual essentials of Juda- 
ism; and, by somewhat abbreviating the ritual that had 
grown too bulky by including some material not ap- 
propriate for a prayer book. The third step, elucida- 
tion, making clear what was obscure, was partly at- 
tained by recital of some prayers in the vernacular (lan- 
guage of the country). There went with these modifica- 
tions certain external improvements that might be styled 
the aesthetic — more decorum in the Synagogue and 
more dignified recital of its service and the reforming 
of mourning customs. Reform in doctrine was to come 
in the second stage, and will therefore be later con- 
sidered. 



86 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Who was responsible for this new departure? Al- 
though Mendelssohn did not found, yet we may say he 
was the father of this posthumous child. Enlightenment 
prepared the way. Therefore, it began in Germany, his 
field of activity. The first person actually to introduce 
a reform service was Israel Jacobson. This included 
the use of the vernacular, a choir, and the rite of con- 
firmation of girls and boys on Pentecost, the Festival of 
the Giving of the Decalogue, supplementing the older 
(though not very old) Bar-Mitzvah, i. e., calling boys 
to the Law. In 1818 the first Reform "Temple" was 
opened in Hamburg. This congregation held its own 
in spite of the opposition of Isaac Bernays, at this time 
the one notable Jew of the "orthodox." This term was 
now used to differentiate the conservatives from the 
progressives. 

Like Karaism of the eighth century (H. M. J. Ch. iii), 
Reform had the good effect of stimulating the Ortho- 
dox to sanction and encourage secular studies. 

So far, the first branch of the Jew's triple need — the 
religious. Second, the intellectual, and the third, the 
political, will be treated in the next two chapters. 

i 

Notes and References: 

Converts : 

Die Juedischen Franen : Kayserling, from p. 197, de- 
scribes in detail the story of the brilliant Jewish women 
whose salons were the intellectual centers of Germany 
and most of whom abjured the Faith of their fathers. 

Die Familie Mendelssohn j This work consists of 
family letters and diaries compiled by Hensel, which 
give us an insight into the religious uncertainty that 
followed the emancipation. — Berlin, 1879. 



THE POST-MENDELSSOHN ERA 



87 



Romanticism : 

The function of Romanticism at its best was to rein- 
fuse poetry and mystery into life. Its votaries supposed 
that this would be attained by a revival of mediaevalism 
which explains in part why some Jewesses succumbed 
to Catholicism, the mediaeval Faith. Fichte, in the phil- 
osophic, and Goethe in the literary world, are the virtual 
fathers of this movement in another aspect of it, in that 
they both reached a new importance of the individual 
even as against law and convention. Its pernicious ex- 
treme was reached by Schlegel, who taught that "the 
poet's caprice is the supreme aesthetic law." Ultimately 
the Romanticists became the enemies both of spiritual 
and political freedom. 

Themes for Discussion : 

a. Give some examples of Reform by exclusion and 
by simplification. 

b. Was the opening of the ''Ghetto" gate a loss to 
the Jew or gain ? 



THE RABBI. BY REMBRANDT. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



ISRAEL LEARNS TO "KNOW HIMSELF" 
(Intellectual Emancipation) 

We have seen how vital it was that the emancipation — 1 
begun by Mendelssohn — in order to be a boon and not a 
menace should be followed up by giving to the Jew a 
truer knowledge of himself and of his heritage. 

The early group of post-Mendelssohns sought the so- 
lution of their problem outside of Judaism. Many 
abandoned the Faith, simply because they did not know 
it. They knew not its grand historic background, its 
varied literature, its philosophy, not even the treasures 
hidden in its ritual. They knew only its excrescences, 
though the removal of these had begun. They regretted 
their birthright because they had not surveyed it. They 
hastened to exchange "old lamps for new," not seeing 
that the only virtue of the new was its glitter, while in 
the old alone burned the mystic flame. 

Leopold Zunz. 

The first to unearth the treasure of Israel's literary 
greatness was Leopold Zunz. "No star sets but another 
rises," said a Jewish sage. Mendelssohn died in 1786, 
Zunz was born in the same land in 1794. As delicate in 
physique as his predecessor and materially as poor, he 
had the same determination to conquer all realms of 
learning. A great linguist, as well as a great mathema- 
tician, he was not only able to decipher knowledge in 
many tongues and in musty manuscripts, but his sys- 
tematic mind and broad grasp enabled him to survey 

89 



90 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



the whole field of Jewish literature, co-ordinate it from 
its entanglements and trace its origin and development 
throughout the long past, and finally, assign its place 
among the literatures of the world. This vast work was 
styled "The Science of Judaism/ 5 and we may call Zunz 
its founder. Revealing the richness of rabbinic litera- 
ture, he demanded its recognition by scholars as a uni- 
versity study. We need not be surprised that it had 
been ignored through ignorance or prejudice by Gentiles, 
when it was neglected even by its own heirs. 

Therefore in order to adapt the Jews to the world of 
culture, they were now entering, and especially to appeal 
to young men, Zunz, while still a student and tutor, or- 
ganized with others the "Verein fuer Cultur der Juden," 
a society to promote Jewish science and culture, and 
published a magazine for its dissemination, known as the 
"Zeitschrift fuer die Wissenschaft des Judenthums." 
Neither society nor magazine lived long, yet long 
enough to sow the seed in many waiting souls. 

Zunz eked out but a precarious existence, at times as 
journalist, at times as preacher or teacher. "Art is 
long" and appreciation, especially of pure learning, is 
slow. To think that this versatile scholar who could 
have worthily filled three university chairs, at one time 
sought occupation even as book-keeper; to think that 
seeking such, he should have failed ! Even as preacher, 
though gifted with eloquence and diction, Prague did 
not appreciate him and Darmstadt rejected him! 

Undeterred., he went on with his studies, though to 
prosecute them he had to visit the libraries of many 
lands. For he was an original scholar who always went 
to the sources. By critically examining the varied writ- 
ings of rabbis, poets and preachers, he was able to get 




LEOPOLD ZUNZ 



92 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



at the philosophic foundation of Judaism. His genius 
enabled him to disclose not only their writings, but their 
life, and their life through their writings. If, for ex- 
ample, he writes on Rashi, he is able to reconstruct 
Rashi's times (H. M. J., ch. xiv) and reveal to us the 
environment of French and German Jewry of the 
eleventh century. 

History Extracted 
from Ritual. 

His first volume, Chapters on the Divine Service of 
the Jews, is the most important work of the nineteenth 
century in the realm of Judaica. Yet it formed but one 
division of the complex work he planned. Its wide scope 
will be better understood when it is remembered that 
since Israel had lost its land, the synagogue was the 
center of its life; therefore much historic information 
is compressed in its Prayer Book for those who can 
find the key. So, to tell the story of the development of 
the divine service is to tell the story of the Jew; this 
Zunz really does. The work involved an enormous 
amount of miscellaneous reading, enabling him to throw 
sidelights on the divergent rites and customs of different 
places and times and the historic reasons behind them. 

He shows that from the beginning the synagogue had 
a threefold function. It was the place for prayer, for 
Bible study and for the sermon. The second developed 
into the third, for the expounding of the Scripture led 
up to that homiletic instruction known as Midrash 
(moral lesson). He discloses to us how this vitally 
important pulpit education varied with the different 
needs of different times. In dark days, like those of the 
Crusades, expulsions and massacres, its function was 



ISRAEL "KNOWS HIMSELF' 



93 



to instil comfort and to deepen faith. In controversial 
days, as in the forced public disputations of Spain, it 
offered weapons for theological defense. At times of 
laxity it turned to moral exhortation. The Midrashic 
expounders often demonstrated genius and their drashas 
(sermons) became a medium of literary activity and of 
ethical and ritual instruction. 

His second great work was Literature and History of 
Synagogue Poetry, and presents the next stage in his 
general subject of the Science of Judaism. On super- 
ficial survey, this book may seem little more than a cata- 
logue of the piyyutim (liturgical poems) of the mediae- 
val synagogue. If it were that only it would be of price- 
less value in resuscitating these literary treasures and 
unearthing names hitherto unknown. He mentions nine 
hundred of these poets of the Prayer Book! But he 
further determines their chronology, their historic asso- 
ciation and the life of suffering and rejoicing Israel be- 
hind them. Through his translations some of the Syna- 
gogue-poems were given to the world. Altogether, he 
demonstrated the contribution of Jewish culture to civil- 
ization. 

In this work occur those renowned words quoted by 
George Eliot in Daniel Deronda, that really summarize 
his whole plea for Jewish recognition: 

"If there are degrees in woe. Israel has reached the 
highest rung; if endurance of sufferings and patience 
with which they are borne ennoble, then the Jews take 
their place side by side with the highest in all lands. If 
a literature is called rich in the possession of a few 
classic tragedies, what shall we say to a national trag- 
edy lasting for fifteen hundred years, in which the 
poets and actors were also the heroes." 



94 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Learning and 
Liberty. 

Zunz pleaded not only for literary recognition of the 
Jew but also, like Mendelssohn, for their political eman- 
cipation. We shall see how he co-related them. Recog- 
nition came at last to Zunz's years of patient service; he 
became the recognized intellectual leader of scattered 
Israel abroad, and was chosen as their local secular rep- 
resentative at home. None better fitted than he to be a 
communal leader to reorganize the German Jewish com- 
munity, and he was often its mouthpiece in pleading for 
removal of their disabilities in the critical period round 
1848, to be treated later. He asked of the European 
powers "not rights and liberties,., but right and liberty." 
He became an Elector both in the Prussian legislature 
and in the German Diet. 

He strikes a new note when he connects disenfran- 
chisement of Jews with their ignorance of their litera- 
ture and history, for he says : 

"The neglect of Jewish science is connected with 
the civil disabilities of the Jews. By a more compre- 
hensive mental culture, a more profound knowledge of 
their own affairs, the Jews would have achieved a 
higher degree of recognition of their rights; many an 
ill-advised step of the legislature and many a preju- 
dice against Jewish antiquity were the immediate con- 
sequences of the abandoned condition in which Jew- 
ish literature has been plunged. Although publica- 
tions against the Talmud and the Jews shot up like 
mushrooms, there existed no book whence statesmen 
might have drawn advice. No professor lectured on 
Judaism and Jewish literature, no academy offered 
prizes therefor . . . Legislators and authors had to 
follow the mendacious authorities of Eisenmenger 
and his ilk. . . . The physical and communal life of 



ISRAEL "KNOWS HIMSELF" 



95 



Jewish congregations is provided for by hospitals and 
asylums ; but religion and science, civil freedom and 
intellectual progress require schools and seminaries." 

He might well have quoted Hosea, "My people are 
destroyed for lack of knowledge." 

He personally demonstrated how the knowledge of 
his traditions can change the political status of the Jew 
in the instance of the law relating to the Jewish oath. 
When a Jew was to take an oath in the Court, all sorts 
of humiliating conditions were imposed to frighten him. 
Why? Because of a wrong supposition that Jews treated 
oaths lightly. Zunz, by his great historic research, was 
able to reveal to the Christian world the sacred and 
binding character of the oath among Jews. In conse- 
quence, perhaps of this disclosure, the degrading cus- 
toms attending a Jewish oath were abolished in Prussia 
in 1869 as they had gradually been abolished in other 
lands since Mendelssohn's first protest and Cremieux's 
later successful effort. (The French Court declared the 
oath unconstitutional in 1846). 

He demonstrated elsewhere that "thought is strong 
enough to vanquish arrogance and injustice, without 
arrogance and injustice." He pleaded not only as Jew 
for Jew, but like Heine and Boerne, as patriotic German 
for German unity, but unlike these, without sacrifice 
of his ancestral faith. 

It was comparatively late in life that an appointment 
came to him as director in a "School for Teachers. " 
This at least removed the anxiety of self-support and 
gave him more opportunity to prosecute his) diverse 
studies. One of his later productions was the editing of 
a Bible translation. For this, none better fitted than he. 
He was a Bible critic of the modern school. He demon- 



96 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



strated the composite authorship of many of the Bible 
books, the lateness of some of the Psalms, the higher 
historic value of Kings than of Chronicles. All Jewry 
participated in celebrating his ninetieth birthday; and 
when he died, in 1886, he was mourned throughout the 
whole Jewish world. 

Historians and 
Seminaries. 

Among those who aided or followed Zunz in vindicat- 
ing the dignity of Israel's past were his co-worker Jost, 
who produced a "History of the Jews"; Nachman 
Krochmal, who made the Talmud yield him a post-exilic 
history ; Solomon Rapaport, who told Israel's story in bi- 
ography; Samuel David Luzzatto, poet and philologist, 
who! illumined the Spanish period ; and Salomon Munk 
of France, who, by opening up the Arabic sources, threw 
further light on Jewish medical activity. 

So the good work went on and Israel came to know 
itself and to respect itself, though there were some rene- 
gades still. A natural outcome of this Jewish renais- 
sance was the establishment of a Seminary in Breslau in 
1854 for the training of rabbis. Its teachers were all 
men famous as leaders of conservative Judaism — Graetz, 
author of The History of the Jezvs, Zacharias Frankl, 
the leader of what we might call progressive orthodoxy, 
Jacob Bernays, philologist and professor at the univer- 
sity of Bonn, the son of Isaac Bernays, chief rabbi of 
Hamburg, and Manuel Joel, a pioneer in Jewish re- 
ligious philosophy, who showed the great influence of 
Jewish philosophy on Christian scholastics. Other sem- 
inaries followed. 

So a new literary era among the Jews was launched, 



ISRAEL "KNOWS HIMSELF 



97 



not philosophic like the Alexandrian, nor legalistic like 
the Babylonian, nor poetic like the Spanish ; but critical, 
the aroma of modernism. It unearths and sifts the old 
treasures rather than adding new. 

Reform's Second Stage. 

The Reform movement also took on a new lease of 
life. In its first stage (p. 79.) it had been superficial and 
external. In this, its second stage, it was based on a 
more philosophic foundation; and included dJ distinct 
attitude towards life. Mendelssohn had given the im- 
pulse to the first stage without being of it, by instituting 
Bible study in the vernacular and by encouraging secular 
education and decorum in worship. Zunz fathered the 
second stage likewise without being of it, by treating 
Scripture as literature in a modern critical spirit; and 
by demonstrating that Judaism was a gradual develop- 
ment, that its law was an evolution, not a product of 
one moment crystallized and finished (as its presenta- 
tion in the Pentateuch might lead one to suppose), but 
rather that it is a continuous tradition. Let us consider 
some of these reforms in beliefs, duties and rites: — 

Rationalism. 

The most decided respect in which Reform differs 
from Orthodoxy, lies in its explanation of religion on 
rationalistic lines. It explains inspiration and prophecy 
as normal experiences of the spirit. It interprets Reve- 
lation as a gradual disclosure of God and His will with- 
out the need of the supernatural. Thus the miracles of 
the Bible are given natural explanations and the Bible 
itself regarded as a human production. According to 
Reform interpretation then, the early history of Israel 
contained in the Bible begins, as all histories, in oral 



98 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



tradition, growing mbre authentic as it advances in time. 
The theories of some of the Bible writers on natural 
science show the limitations of a far off age. But the 
Reform school reminds us, that this does not affect the 
validity of its moral truths. Its spiritual message to man 
persists through all ; and is independent of later discov- 
ery of natural law. 

The man who best voiced these views and was the 
actual leader of this second stage of Reform was Abra- 
ham Geiger, 1810-1874. For its furtherance he estab- 
lished both a journal and a school. He demonstrated 
that the aim of Reform Judaism was to establish har- 
mony between law and life. 

The Messiah and 

the National Restoration. 

An important doctrinal change made by the Reform 
leaders clusters around Israel's future outlook. Ortho- 
dox Judaism regards the suppression of the Jewish 
nation and Israel's dispersion as punishment and tragedy 
to be righted only by a restoration to the Holy Land 
under the leadership of its Messiah-King, there to re- 
vive the old national life with Temple, priesthood and 
sacrifice ; this to be followed by the world's acceptance 
of monotheism and humanity's regeneration. The Re- 
former treats the dispersion not as a temporary exile, 
but as part of the divine plan, whereby Israel, God's 
witness, might carry His message to the people of the 
earth. Not by a national restoration, through a personal 
Messiah, not by miracle at one grand moment, but grad- 
ually and normally, and in the world's midst can Israel, 
if loyal to its Sinaitic call, bring about the fulfilment 
of the prophetic hopes of a purified society "knowing 



ISRAEL "KNOWS HIMSELF" 99 

God". This ultimate day it calls "the Messianic time". 
The Reform ritual therefore eliminates all prayers for 
restoration of nation, sacrifice or priesthood. It lays 
new emphasis on Israel's relation to mankind, and its 
responsibility for their spiritual welfare. 

Woman. 

Reform gives larger place to woman in religious life. 
She is counted in the Minyan (quorum) for divine wor- 
ship and is given the privilege of reciting the Kaddish 
for the departed. Therefore, she does not sit aloof in a 
gallery at the divine service. Girls share equally with 
boys the rite of Confirmation on the Feast of Pentecost. 

It further diverges from Orthodox Judaism in denial 
of the resurrection of the body ; but unites with it in af- 
firming the immortality of the soul. 

Ceremonialism. 

Reform does not make the sharp distinction between 
biblical and talmudic law drawn by the Karaites (H. 
M. p. 31), but it distinguishes in both codes between 
laws that are political and local, fitting the civilization 
of a particular age, and on the other hand, such as are 
universal and moral. Among the former it classes agri- 
cultural,, sacrificial, dietary, Schechita and divorce laws. 
Injunctions as to tephillin (phylacteries), worship with 
covered head, the separation of the sexes and customs 
of the Orient generally, — such it does not deem binding. 
The latter, the universal and moral, would include such 
institutions as the Sabbath, the sacred days, the moral 
codes and the humanitarian and ethical precepts in bibli- 
cal and rabbinic law. The tendency of Reform general- 
ly has been to simplify and lessen ceremonial and treat 
it as subordinate to the ethical ; as a symbol that feeds 



r 



100 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



the emotional and the religious side of life. So its 
divine services are briefer, its ritual less complex ; its 
prayers partly in Hebrew and partly in the vernacular. 

These reforms did not come about at once, nor with- 
out bitter controversy with the conservative wing. They 
were evolved gradually by the fathers of the movement 
and were given sanction by a series of Conferences, at 
Brunswick in 1844, at Frankfort in 1845 and at Breslau 
in 1846. 

It will be seen that Germany was its home. But it 
was transplanted to America with the German immigra- 
tion. Its fathers here were David Einhorn, Samuel 
Hirsch and Isaac M. Wise. Rabbinic Conferences were 
continued in America. One was held in Philadelphia 
m 1869, another in Pittsburgh in 1885. The Central 
Conference of American Rabbis, later inaugurated, will 
be more fully described in a later chapter. 

Some of the chief decisions of the several Confer- 
ences in addition to those already specified were the 
following : Introduction of English prayers ; reading the 
Law in a triennial cycle or in an abridged form ; the use 
of the organ at the regular divine service of the Syna- 
gogue ; abolition of the "second day" of the Holy Days 
and Festivals ; lessening the severity of mourning cus- 
toms and the complexity of marriage customs ; making 
less stringent the conditions of admitting proselytes — 
and thus encouraging proselytism ; abandonment of 
Chalitza (permit from a brother-in-law to widow to re- 
marry) ; non-recognition of a rabbinic divorce {get) ; 
introduction of Sunday services. 

James Darmesteter. 

Among those who revealed to Israel their own spirit- 
ual treasures was James Darmesteter. Though he 



ISRAEL "KNOWS HIMSELF 



101 



drifted from Judaism, like Heine, he returned to it in 
spirit in his deep and deepening appreciation of the 
Hebrew Scriptures. 

Born in France in 1849 of humble parentage, he al- 
ready showed in boyhood that remarkable linguistic gift 
that ultimately won for him the Prix d'Honneur. He 
devoted the best of his life to the literature of the East. 
He translated the Zend Avesta into French and English 
and added a commentary. He was made Professor of 
Persian in the College of France and Professor at the 
Ecole des Hautes Etudes. In the midst of voluminous 
technical productions, this versatile scholar found time 
to write exquisite poetry. After Renan's death "he was 
regarded as the most distinguished scholar of France. " 
He had an intense appreciation of the Hebrew Prophets. 
Here are some quotations from his Prophets of Israel : 

"The prophet is the man possessed of God, and 
through whom the will of God is revealed to men. . . . 
W hat is unique in Jewish prophecy is that it became 
the all-powerful weapon, not of charlatans and of 
fools, but of those inspired, in whom the mind and 
the conscience of modern humanity found their first 
successful and lasting expression. The work of these 
prophets survives in a hundred pages of the Bible 
and — in three religions. " 

"The century following after Elijah gave birth to 
a new phenomenon ; a god became the instrument of 
morality." 

"The Eighth b. c. e. century, that culminated in 
this movement, is one of the great epochs in the his- 
tory of the human soul. ,, 

"These ancient words, fierce and violent have more 
vitality at the present time, and answer better to the 
needs of modern souls, than all the classic master- 
pieces of antiquity." 



102 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



"Amos and Hosea dream only of moral salvation 
for Israel and the chosen people. . . . What Isaiah 
sees, is Israel saved, and saving the world. In the 
midst of nations given over to brutal games,, he 
dreams for Israel the ascendancy of noble example 
and of the ideal. He sees a day coming, at the end of 
time when . . . throngs of people shall come say- 
ing: 'Come ye, and let us go up to the mountain of Je- 
hovah, to the house of the God of Israel, that he 
may teach us of his ways, and that we may walk in 
his paths. For from Zion shall go forth instruction, 
and from Jerusalem the word of the Eternal.' The 
decisive word is launched, a universal religion is 
founded. " 

"If Jeremiah had allowed himself to perish at the 
time of the destruction (of the Temple) . . . human- 
ity would have missed the sound of words which can 
still save her, and which have consoled her for twenty- 
six centuries. The Decalogue and the Sermon on the 
Mount could never have emanated from Babylon, nor 
from Athens or Rome. Jeremiah displayed the un- 
paralleled heroism of fighting against his country 
false to herself, for the benefit of a future country 
which was not yet born, and which as yet existed only 
in his heart and in that of some disciples. " 

"The sufferings of Israel transformed by trium- 
phant ^prophecy, are no longer, as at the time of Jere- 
miah and of militant prophecy, the expiation of her 
faults . . . they are the price of salvation of the hu- 
man soul. Jehovah had placed his spirit in Israel, 
through her to acquaint the nations with justice. It 
is therefore not in vain that Israel suffered, that she 
was despised and rejected of men, a people of sor- 
rows, acquainted with suffering. Sent by the Lord to 
preach his word, she was not rebellious, and recoiled 
not from the stain of sorrow. She gave her back to 
those that struck her, her cheek to those that insulted 
her, and hid not her face although reviled and spat 
upon. As the lamb that is led to slaughter, as the sheep 
is dumb before the shearer, she opened not her 



ISRAEL "KNOWS HIMSELF" 103 

mouth, and therefore she shall not die. Men believed 
her stricken of God, whereas it is to reclaim them 
from their sins that she was afflicted ; it was for their 
salvation that she was chastised. And she neither 
grows weary nor discouraged, that justice may be 
established upon the earth ; and the far-off islands 
await her instruction. Jehovah makes Israel the leg- 
islator of nations; the nations that know her not shall 
hasten to her. She shall lead the stranger to her holy 
mountain; for the house of Jehovah shall be called a 
house of prayer for all people." 

"The prophets were the first to utter this cry (of 
human conscience projected heavenward) and they 
did so for all time." 

"Eight centuries before Lucretius, the God of the 
shepherd, Amos, exclaims : 'From your offerings of 
fat beasts I turn away my eyes. . . . But let righteous- 
ness gush forth as water, and justice as a never-fail- 
ing stream." 

"The religion of the twentieth century . . . will 
arise out of the fusion of prophecy with science." 

Notes and References: 

Jewish Historians : 

Krochmal was born in Galicia in 1785. Like his 
earlier contemporary Mendelssohn, he too lived in an 
environment that treated secular study as sin. His 
"Guide to the Perplexities of the Time" treats Jewish, 
History philosophically. See Schechter's Studies in 
Judaism. J. P. S. A. 

Weiss wrote a History of Jewish Tradition in He- 
brew. 

Steinschneider's historic sketch of Jewish History is 
a work as monumental in its way as Zunz's magnum 
opus. 

Solomon Rapaport, 1790-1867, an Austrian rabbi, was 
Krochmal's more famous pupil. He was renowned for 
Hebrew lore and Western culture. 



104 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Jost's History of the Jews has been eclipsed by that of 
Graetz. The latter is, so far, the classic historian of the 
Jews. English readers are referred to an English con- 
densation of his work in five volumes issued by the Jew- 
ish Publication Society of America. The index volume 
contains a memoir of the author. 

Jewish Seminaries : 

See "History of the Jews in Modern Times ,, by Max 
Raisin, p. 11, for more detailed biographies of their 
founders. 

Reform Judaism : 

A Reform movement was launched in England in 
1840, but on Karaite lines, i. e., rejection of rabbinic 
law. This has been recently followed by a more pro- 
gressive undertaking known as "The Jewish Religious 
Union of Liberal Judaism," instituted by Claude G. 
Montefiore, author of Liberal Judaism and Hellenism, 
Macmillan, 1903. 

Jewish Encyclopedia, articles "Reform Judaism," 
"Piyyutim," and "Rabbinic Conferences." 

Reform Movement in Judaism, D. Philipson, Mac- 
millan. 

"Jewish Theology/' K. Kohler, Macmillan. 

Ludwig Phillipson issued a periodical "Allgemeine 
Zeitung des Judenthums," which carried far the Re- 
form message. 
Geiger and Holdheim : 

Geiger may be better understood by contrasting him 
with that other great reformer, Samuel Holdheim. The 
latter was an iconoclast and like all radicals, swept aside 
some precious institutions in his vigorous crusade against 
the obsolete and the outworn. He would have aban- 
doned Hebrew altogether from the ritual. Geiger's reform 
was more synthetic. Like Zunz, he viewed religion not 
as something isolated, but as one of the forces of civili- 
zation, and, like them, never a finished product, but per- 
petually progressing in harmony with the laws of the 
universe. Reforms must therefore be natural and or- 
ganic — no violent breaks with the historic past. 



ISRAEL "KNOWS HIMSELF 



105 



Jewish Humanists : 

The Renaissance and Humanism are mentioned in the 
opening chapter of this work. A French savant, Nahoum 
Slouschz, in telling the story of the literary movements 
of modern Jewry, speaks of a "Jewish Renaissance" and 
a "Jewish Humanism." The Renaissance of Hebrew 
Literature, translated from the French by Miss Hen- 
rietta Szold. 

He uses the term "humanism" (Haskalah) to indicate 
that modern Hebrew is made the vehicle of every phase 
of human thought. This new school of Maskilim (in- 
tellectuals) are the logical successors of the German 
Meassefim (see p. 79). 
In chap, iii, he says : 

"The rabbinical students themselves were the first 
representatives of humanism in Lithuania. They be- 
came as ambitious in cultivating the Hebrew language 
and studying the secular sciences presented in it, as in 
' searching out and examining the Talmud. Sprung 
from the people, living its life and sharing in its 
miseries, separated from Christian society by a barrier 
of prescriptions that seemed inseparable to them,, the 
earliest of the Lithuanian litterateurs vitalized their 
young love for science and Hebrew letters with the 
disinterested devotion that characterizes the idealists 
of the Ghetto in general." 

It must be added that the tone of these Russian 
writers is very pessimistic. 

Among notable men of this Hebrew Renaissance 
school was Asher Ginzberg. His nom-de-plume was 
Achad Ha'am (one of the people). A magazine edited 
by him is the focus of Jewish Hebrew T literature of many 
lands. We may include Bialik, the Hebrew poet, and 
Perez, the writer of Stories of the Ghetto, translation 
J. P. S. A. 

Yiddish : 

Juedisch Deutsch, as the name implies, was mediae- 
val German, intermixed with some Hebrew words in 



106 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



daily usage. It later grew into a distinct language and 
includes words culled from many tongues. It is the 
mother tongue of most Jews of Eastern Europe. Its 
earliest literature consisted of Bible translations, stories 
from the Midrash, Talmud and Kabala, as well as 
fables, folk tales and songs. A Yiddish translation of 
the Pentateuch appeared as early as 1540. Since Men- 
delssohn's day it has become the medium for all forms 
of literature, philosophy, poetry, fiction and drama and 
a vehicle for Jewish journalism in Eastern Europe and 
in the Ghettoes of the Western world. 

Elijah Gaon : 

Born in Vilna in 1720, he was the ablest Jew that 
Poland produced. The title "Gaon" which we might 
translate "his Excellency" implied that he was regarded 
as a great authority on Jewish law. He, in Russia, did 
work corresponding to that which Mendelssohn and 
Zunz did in Germany, transforming the old Talmudic 
educational method. (See Studies in Judaism, first 
series, chap, iii, Schechter, J. P. S. A.) 

Haskalah Movement — Jacob Raisin, J. P. S. A. 

Leon Gordon, by A. B. Rhine, J. P. S. A. 

Jewish Oath — Israel Among the Nations, p. 28, Leroy 
Beaulieu, Putnams. 

Leopold Zunz: 

Karpeles, Jewish Literature, J. P. S. A. 
N. Krochmal: 

Schechter, Studies in Judaism. 

Samson Raphael Hirsch, a leading Conservative : 

Drachman, Nineteen Letters of Uziel, Funk & Wag- 
nails Co. 

Heller, Year Book Cent. Conf. of Am. Rabbis, vol. 
xviii, p. 179. Cincinnati. (Each "Year Book" consists 
of the proceedings of an annual convention). 

) 

Theme for Discussion : 

Zunz belonged to the rational school of Bible critics, 
why,, then, was he not a Reform Jew? 



CHAPTER IX. 
POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



The French Revolution. 

We are now to consider the third requisite of the 
modern Jew, political emancipation. It began in France 
where The Revolution brought rapid fulfilment to 
Mendelssohn's dreams. 

The rise of the French people against their tyrannic 
kings and the numerous tax-exempt nobles and clericals, 
was long a-brewing. The discontent began in the seven- 
teenth century under Louis XIV, styled "le grand mon- 
arches whose oppressive war taxes and prodigal court 
undermined the national prosperity. During the 
eighteenth century, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and 
others sowed the seeds of revolt through their writings. 
The next king, the profligate Louis XV, robbed the 
people of the last shred of respect for royalty and his 
exactions brought their long suffering miseries to the 
breaking point. When the weak, though well-meaning 
Louis XVI mounted the throne, he could no longer stem 
the tide. America's fight for independence about this 
time, was meanwhile spreading republican ideas, and its 
triumph brought further encouragement. In 1789 the 
king was forced to convene the "States General. " This 
was quickly followed by the organization of the "Nation- 
al Assembly." The opposition of the king led to the 
formation of the National Guard both in Paris and in 
the provinces. The Assembly abrogated feudal privi- 
leges and instituted the equality of human rights. 

107 



108 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



The improvement in the Jewish status kept pace with 
all these progressive movements. (See p. 71.). Abbe 
Gregoire and Mirabeau took up the Jewish cause. The 
latter issued a work upon "Mendelssohn and the Politi- 
cal Reform of the Jews." Both pleaded specifically for 
the Jews as well as for the whole French people, in the 
National Assembly. 

Soon the Bastile prison was seized by the revolution- 
ists, the king taken prisoner, and the nobility were flee- 
ing in all directions ; some renounced their titles and 
threw in their lot with the common people. Jews showed 
their patriotism in sending deputies to the National As- 
sembly and in joining the National Guard. They also 
translated the Bible into the language of the country — 
French. (Bible translation always marked an epoch in 
Jewish history from the Greek Septuagint to Mendels- 
sohn's German Pentateuch.) When in this same year of 
rapid change, 1789, the law for religious freedom was 
passed, it included the Jews ; for theoretically their dis- 
abilities were removed in the declaration of the rights 
of man. In 1790 all special Jewish taxes were rescinded. 
In 1791 followed the abrogation of anti-Jewish laws 
and Jewish equality was legally confirmed by the As- 
sembly. 

In 1793 the king and queen were guillotined and the 
French Republic set up with "Liberty, Equality and 
Fraternity" as its watchwords. Then followed the Reign 
of Terror with is orgy of blood. Terrible revenge did 
the people exact for centuries of wrong. In 1794 the 
established religions were suppressed; temples of Rea- 
son replaced sanctuaries of divinity; immortality was 
denied ; and a tenth day Sabbath replaced the seventh 
day of Scripture. Then the frenzy subsided. A bril- 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



109 



Kant young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, who was win- 
ning plaudits for France against its many enemies, re- 
stored order. The excesses subsided, but the Republic 
remained. 

Napoleon. 

Xapoleon now carried a French army across the Con- 
tinent to spread the mission of republicanism and to 
overthrow the old thrones and the old tyrannies. In 
1795 he transformed Holland into the Batavian repub- 
lic and made various conquests in Italy and Germany. 
He deposed the provisional government of France with 
a high hand and succeeded in being appointed Chief 
Consul, Later, ambition lured him to forsake his re- 
publican mission and to covet a crown. Caesar, rather 
than Washington, was his ideal. So, in 1804 we find 
him Emperor. While he did much to improve his 
country, this backward step violated its democratic ideal. 

But in all lands that his conquering arms reached, 
Jewish disabilities were removed, including the obnox- 
ious poll-tax of most German states. Westphalia granted 
the Jews complete freedom and equality. Baden granted 
civil rights, and the Hanseatic towns — Lubeck, Bremen 
and Hamburg — unwillingly followed. Xapoleon de- 
cided to examine thoroughly the status of French Jews. 
Therefore, in . 1806, he summoned a Council of One 
Hundred and Fifty Jewish notables to bring Jewish 
laws in agreement with French obligations. ' The 
French, as ignorant as most nations of Jewish customs 
and ethics, learnt with surprise from this gathering, that 
occidental Jews did not permit polygamy; that they ac- 
cepted the State law of divorce as valid; that intermar- 
riages, though not approved by the Synagogue, were 



110 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



treated as legally binding; and that Jews regarded 
France as their country and the French as their breth- 
ren. This prepared the way for the summoning of a 
Jewish Sanhedrin. 

The French 
Sanhedrin. 

It was quite in keeping with the spectacular Napoleon, 
who revived the old Roman Empire with himself as 
Emperor and his son crowned King of Rome, to re- 
open this ancient Jewish legislature and give it his pat- 
ronizing supervision. It was to be composed of seventy- 
one members (the original number), two-thirds rabbis 
and one-third laymen. It was convened in 1807 and 
passed the following regulations, some of which were 
but the putting of the voluntary replies of the Assembly 
of notables into legal form. 

1. The non-Israelitish monotheist to be regarded as 
a brother. 

2. Jews must defend and serve their country. 

3. Agriculture and handicrafts to be encouraged, as 
demanded by Jewish law. 

4. The practice of usury to be forbidden. 

5. Monogamy the only form of marriage to be recog- 
nized. 

6. Intermarriage to be treated as binding, though 
not to be accompanied by a Jewish ceremony. 

7. A civil marriage must precede the religious. 

8. A Jewish divorce must be preceded by a civil de- 
cree. 

There were not many Jews in France, fifty thousand 
in all. This was in consequence of the frequent French 
expulsions. (H. M. ch. xxvi). Of these, twenty 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



111 



thousand were in Alsace and were comparatively recent 
immigrations from German provinces. These w T ere not 
looked upon quite as French Jews, and Napoleon did 
not grant to them all the freedom and privileges allowed 
to the older Jewish settlers in the other parts of France. 
For although the granting of liberty and equality was 
not a special consideration for Jews, but a logical con- 
sequence of the revolutionary doctrine, it was found that 
the prejudice of centuries could not be wiped out in 
a moment, by law. 

Napoleon's Downfall 
Brings Reaction. 

Napoleon's decline began, with his disastrous cam- 
paign in Russia in 1812, where his victory w r as his worst 
defeat. Enemies, taking courage, arose on all sides, and 
he was forced to abdicate in 1814. The royal house was 
restored, and all France's newly acquired lands were 
restored to their original rulers. Although Napoleon 
returned to France in 1815 with an army and reigned 
for a hundred days, yet the united armies defeated him 
finally at Waterloo, June 18, 1815. He was exiled to 
St. Helena and the Bourbon dynasty was again restored 
and continued till 1830. 

Naturally this reacted unfavorably on the Jewish 
status. Bavaria and Saxony had retained the old re- 
strictions through all the revolutionary changes. Austria 
had not even abrogated that cruel and demoralizing rule 
that only the eldest son in each Jewish family should be 
permitted to marry ! They certainly would not better the 
Jewish status now. 

While Frankfort had grudgingly granted a few priv- 
ileges and destroyed its Ghetto, after the exile of Napo- 




IN THE FRANKFORT JUDEN-GASSE. 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



113 



leon, the Ghetto was reinstituted. Prussia disenfran- 
chized its Jews. Some German towns attacked their 
Jewish residents, some exiled them. That they had shed 
their blood for their respective fatherlands was forgot- 
ten ; that their blood was not Teutonic only was re- 
membered. Rome reinstated the Pope, who reinstated 
the Inquisition and drove back the Jews once more to 
the Ghetto on the Tiber. Only France, with monarchy 
restored, allowed the recently granted Jewish rights to 
remain. 

The Teutomania crusade with its shibboleth, "Ger- 
many for the Germans," not only revived the old re- 
strictions, but engaged virulent pens to revive the old 
slanders. Here they met their match. Two sons of 
Israel of literary fame arose as apostles of liberty and 
leaders of young Germany — Heinrich Heine (See Chap, 
vii.) and Ludwig Boerne. Their trenchant and con- 
vincing words silenced the calumnies. Alas, as already 
narrated, they belonged to that sceptical group who 
sought through baptism, the privileges they could not 
obtain as Jews. More deserving our appreciation was 
Gabriel Riesser, (1806-1863), the jurist who show r ed 
how to fight for Jewish emancipation in Germany with- 
out leaving the Jewish fold. 

But France, the land of surprises, had yet another in 
store. A revolution in 1830 dethroned the Bourbons and 
elected Louis Philippe king by popular vote. All re- 
maining inequalities between Jew and Gentile were re- 
moved. Judaism was placed on equal footing with 
Catholicism and Protestantism in receiving State aid. 
This same year witnessed the emancipation of Jews in 
Belgium. 



MOSES MONTEFIORE 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



115 



Growth of Jewish Rights. 

The kaleidoscope shook once more in 1848 and 
France was a Republic again. But this famous year saw 
revolution spread over the whole continent. With the 
general wave of liberalism the status of the Jews be- 
came a fairly tolerable one, and they were gradually ad- 
mitted into the Parliaments of the reconstructed States. 

So in this pivotal year of "Sturm and Drang," Swe- 
den, Denmark and Greece granted freedom to their 
Jews, and in 1850 Prussia removed the disabilities 
against them. Lagging Austria, after several setbacks 
and disappointments, finally let down the bars in 1867 
and united Germany in 1871. 

From '48 on, the Italian States removed Jewish dis- 
abilities, one by one. Rome under the rule of the Pope 
stubbornly resisted longest. By the year 1870 when all 
these separate Italian States including the Papal, were 
merged in one united Italy, the Jewish status was that 
of emancipated subjects throughout the land. The 
Roman Ghetto fell and with it all remaining Jewish re- 
strictions. As an indication of later liberality, Ernesto 
Nathan was twice elected Mayor of Rome. Luzzatto 
has served as Premier of Italy. 

Their advance in England was slow but steady. Some 
civil rights were granted on Queen Victoria's accession 
to the throne in 1837. Moses Montefiore, the philan- 
thropist, was made Sheriff of London and later knight- 
ed. In 1858 Jews were admitted to Parliament without 
having to take the oath "on the true faith of a Chris- 
tian." But this rite had been granted in the English 
colony of Canada twenty-six years earlier. In 1871 
Jews were taking university degrees. In 1885 Roth- 
schild was made a peer and admitted to the House of 



116 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Lords. Since then many Jews have been raised to the 
Peerage. Sir Samuel Montagu became Lord Swayth- 
ling, Sir Marcus Samuel became Lord Bearsted, Sir 
Matthew Nathan is governor of Queensland, six Jews 
are Privy Councillors, nineteen are Baronets and twenty- 
eight, Knights. Many have been Lord Mayors of Lon- 
don and Mayors of other cities. 

Some Jews have served in recent years in the Cabi- 
net. Herbert Samuel was made Postmaster General 
before he became High Commissioner for Palestine; Sir 
Edwin Montagu was Secretary of State for India; Sir 
Alfred Mond is Minister of Health. The most notable 
appointment is that of Rufus Isaacs, first knighted, next 
made Attorney General, ,then Lord Chief Justice. Fin- 
ally raised to the Peerage as Earl Reading, made Am- 
bassador Extraordinary to the United States, and is at 
present serving as Viceroy of India. 

Not till 1873 did all the Cantons of Switzerland 
grant complete Jewish emancipation, induced perhaps 
by the urgency of the United States. Even Spain and 
Portugal whose cruel expulsions form the most tragic 
chapter in Jewish history came to their sober second 
thought. Portugal, after some opposition, reinviting 
them as early as 1821, and Spain as late as 1868. But 
few took advantage of these offers. Nemesis here in- 
flicted poetic justice. Having economically ruined their 
own lands by driving out Jews and Moors, the com- 
mercial retrogression of these priest-ridden countries of- 
fered no allurement for Jewish return. 

Balkan States. 

A word as to the Jewish status in the Balkan States. 
Some of these countries had been part of the larger 



LORD READING, VICEROY OF INDIA 



118 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Turkish Empire and its Jews, descendants of the Span- 
ish and Portuguese who took refuge there in the 16th 
century. By the Berlin Treaty of 1878 and largely 
through the energy of England's ambassador, Benjamin 
Disraeli, the political equality of the Jews in these prov- 
inces on the Danube — Servia, Bulgaria, Montenegro 
and Roumania — was guaranteed. Servia was most 
hearty in fulfilling its promises and the earliest of all to 
give political rights to the Jews. Bulgaria at times fol- 
lowed the hostile example of Russia. But Roumania, 
where the largest number of Jews resided, treated these 
promises as scraps of paper from the first. Though 
emancipation of the Jews was one of the conditions of 
the independence granted to Roumania, it evaded its 
promise to the Powers with regard to the Jews by a 
cunning subterfuge. It classed Jews as "aliens not sub- 
ject to alien protection," though the settlement of some 
Jews is earlier than that of the Roumanians themselves ! 
To this official attitude was added an unofficial boycott 
and a series of repressive trade-laws. Further legisla- 
tion debarred their children almost entirely from the 
schools. Whole families were expelled from the country 
districts, the expulsions carried out by a tyrannical 
police. Though denied common justice, the Roumanian 
Jew was forced to serve in the army, where he met yet 
further abuse. Life thus made impossible for the Jews 
in Roumania, they began emigrating. In 1892 their exo- 
dus reached the intensity of a flight. 

In a remarkable letter to the United States' represen- 
tative in Roumania — sent August, 1902, Secretary of 
State John Hay summarized the condition of the Jews 
in Roumania as follows : 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



119 



"The condition of a large class of the inhabitants 
of Roumania has for many years been a source of 
grave concern to the United States. I refer to the 
Roumanian Jews, numbering some 400,000. The 
treaty of Berlin was hailed in view of the express 
provisions of its forty-fourth article, prescribing that 
'in Roumania, the difference of religious creeds and 
confessions shall not be alleged against any person as 
a ground for exclusion or incapacity in matters re- 
lating to the enjoyment of civil and political rights, 
admission to public employments, functions and hon- 
ors, or the exercise of the various professions and in- 
dustries in any locality whatsoever/ and stipulating 
freedom in the exercise of all forms of worship to 
Roumanian dependents and foreigners alike, as well 
as guaranteeing that all foreigners in Roumania shall 
be treated without distinction of creed, on a footing 
of perfect equality. 

"With the lapse of time these just prescriptions have 
been rendered nugatory in great part, as regards the 
native Jews, by the legislature and municipal regu- 
lations of Roumania. 

"Starting from the arbitrary and controvertible pre- 
mise that the* native Jews of Roumania domiciled 
there for centuries are 'aliens 'not subject to foreign 
protection/ the ability of the Jew to earn even the 
scanty means of existence that suffice for a frugal race 
has been constricted by degrees, until nearly every op- 
portunity to win a livelihood is denied ; and until the 
helpless poverty of the Jew has constrained an exodus 
of such proportions as to cause general concern/' 

The Balkan Wars, 1912-13 deeply affected the Jews 
living in the lands concerned. It meant that the Jewish 
community of Salonica of nearly 100,000 souls, passed 
from the negligent rule of Turkey to that of the less 
tolerant Greece. It also brought other Turkish Jews 
under the openly hostile kingdom of Roumania. But 
we shall presently see that the map of Europe and 



120 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Asia was again to be changed with a re-distribution of 

sovereignties. 

"Ritual Murder"; 

The "Alliance Israelite." 

The need of closer Jewish cohesion had already been 
demonstrated in 1840 when a "Blood Accusation" arose 
in Damascus that roused all Europe. Some Jews, it 
was said, had slain a priest and his servant, and used 
their blood for the Passover. Since France was most 
closely concerned, two of its leading Jews came to the 
fore — Salomon Munk, the scholar, and Cremieux, the 
statesman; they were joined by Sir Moses Montenore. 
Magnificently did the English Parliament repudiate this 
calumny. Ultimately by the exposure of the true cul- 
prit, the complete exoneration of the Jews was achieved. 

Later, in 1858 in Italy, a Jewish lad named Mortara 
was spirited away and secretly baptized by a Catholic 
domestic. The Roman Church persisted in its refusal to 
give him up. Then the Jews felt it was high time to 
organize their scattered forces in defense of their good 
names and homes. "In union there is strength". So in 
1860 there was formed in France the Alliance Israelite 
Universelle. Its motto explains its purport: Kol Yisroel 
arovim zai lo-zai. (All Israelites are responsible one 
for the other.) It was a union of Jews in free lands to 
aid their brethren in lands of oppression. Correspond- 
ing organizations were formed in other countries later: 
the Anglo-Jewish Association in England, the Austrian 
Israelitische Allianz, and, in Germany, "Der Hilfsverein 
der Deutschen Juden." (A corresponding body, "The 
American Jewish Committee", will be referred to in a 
later chapter). All of these from time to time have 



ADOLPHE CREMTEUX 



122 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



exerted their united powers to combat persecution from 
without and to appeal to foreign governments when 
needful. They aid their brethren from within by estab- 
lishing farm colonies, general and technical schools. 
They* exercise their activity therefore chiefly in those 
lands where the status of the Jew is least hopeful both 
politically and intellectually, such as Asiatic Turkey, 
Abyssinia, Afghanistan, Persia and Morocco. The Al- 
liance schools are bringing general enlightenment. That 
general enlightenment brings political emancipation had 
already been demonstrated by Zunz, whose career was 
outlined in the preceding chapter. 

Jews and Liberalism. 

The Jews who took an active part in hastening their 
own emancipation did much to further the cause of 
liberalism for all peoples. We might speak of this as 
one phase of the Jewish mission. Heine and Boerne 
already mentioned, together with the journalists Hart- 
mann and Saphir were the leaders in that progressive 
movement known as "Young Germany. " Still later, 
Lasker led the liberal group in Germany. In the later 
revolutionary party in France, Cremieux was in the 
foreground. 

Furthermore, we find Jews in those advance move- 
ments concerning economics and industrial relations. 
David Ricardo, born in England in 1792, a versatile 
scholar, became an authority on economics. His chief 
work which became a standard, was the "Principles of 
Political Economy and Taxation/' He advocated many 
progressive movements for the public welfare, — free 
trade, savings banks, old age pensions, profit sharing, 
as well as religious liberty. 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



123 



Ricardo's iron law of wages led another Jew, Karl 
Marx, daringly to attack the entire theory of modern 
industrialism in his monumental work "Das Kapital." 
He may be regarded as the father of modern socialism, 
as in a spiritual sense we may call the Hebrew prophets 
the fathers of ancient socialism. Ferdinand La Salle 
espoused its cause in Germany but his brilliant career 
was cut short by an early death. 

The Jew in 

Commerce and Finance. 

The Jew confined, in his occupations up to modern 
times, to trading, and compelled to live in towns, — by 
this very stress of necessity, some became experts as 
financiers. (Though the Jew's influence here has been 
somewhat overstated recently by a German professor 
named Sombart.) A century ago Jews were very active 
in the great Fairs on the Continent, notably that of 
Leipzig. These were distributing centers of business. 
The wide dispersion of the Jew further enabled them 
to establish international connections. Controlling in 
this way large funds and sources of supply, they were 
occasionally able to finance governments (p. 40, note 43.) 

The most remarkable instance of financial genius was 
the house of Rothschild. In the 18th century Mayer 
Amschel Rothschild of Frankfort, was agent for the 
Landgrave of Hesse Cassel. When the fortunes of war 
compelled this local ruler to flee, his wealth was en- 
trusted to Rothschild's son, Nathan, the genius of the 
family. He took it to England and with it aided that 
Government. Through this and other monies entrusted 
to him for investment, he was able to aid Great Britain 
during all the Napoleonic campaigns. He thus estab- 



124 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



lished the London branch of this firm. Other branches 
in addition to the one in Frankfort, were established in 
Paris, in Vienna and Naples. In this way the five 
brothers became the medium through which the Govern- 
ments of Europe issued their loans, for some thirty 
years, amounting to three quarters of a billion dollars. 
Other Jewish banking houses of great influence, though 
of less note, followed. Rut financial leadership largely 
passed from their hands after 1848. Since that time, we 
have been more concerned with the Rothschilds as phil- 
anthropists, both in England, France and Austria. 

Jews in 

Literature and Science. 

In addition to many gifted men mentioned throughout 
this book, for the completeness of the record, a word or 
two should be said of some who have contributed lustre 
to the Jewish name. 

Israel Zangwill, a humorist and novelist. He has 
shown himself a sympathetic interpreter of Jewish life, 
particularly in his Ghetto stories. Deeply concerned in 
the past reputation and future welfare of his people, he 
has portrayed with his powerful pen Jewish ideals in a 
group of articles entitled "The Voice of Jerusalem. " 
This forms an important contribution to Jewish apolo- 
getics. 

George Brandes of Denmark, also deserves mention 
here. He is the author of Main Currents hi \9tli 
Century Literature, and is one of the foremost men of 
letters today. Sir Sidney Lee is the best English author- 
ity on Shakespeare and was knighted when he com- 
pleted editing the Encyclopedia of National Biography. 
Sir Israel Gollancz is professor of literature in Kings 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



125 



College, London. It is regretable that the language in 
which Bialik's poems are written leaves them unknown 
to the Gentile world. Lazarus L. Zamenhof, born in 
Russia in 1857, conceived the idea of a universal lan- 
guage based on existing modern tongues, that he calls 
Esperanto. Equally enterprising was Julius Reuter of 
Germany who, about 1848, devised an international 
News Agency for the use of all newspapers. He so far 
succeeded that it became the center for gathering news 
of events happening all over the world. 

Henri Bergson, the philosopher, has uttered one of 
the last words on man's conception of the universe. He 
points out that knowledge can come to us through our 
intuition as well as through our intellect. We are, he 
tells us, of the very life which we try to define. In his 
chief work, "Creative Evolution/' he teaches us that we 
are ever recreating the world as we triumphantly march 
onward. 

Albert Einstein startled the world with a new theory 
of light and motion. His hypothesis modifies somewhat 
Sir Isaac Newton's law of the attraction of gravitation. 
Albert A. Michaelson, whose researches bring endorse- 
men to those of Einstein, w r as born in 1852 and became 
a noted professor of physics. His achievements in this 
field have won honors for him by learned bodies 
throughout the world. He received the Nobel Prize in 
1907. (As many as five Jews have won Nobel prizes in 
science.) He discovered a new method of determining 
the velocity of light. 

In this field of natural science, as would be expected, 
Jews have been contributors in the domain of medicine. 
Ehrlich discovered an anti-toxin for a disease of the 
blood, and Simon Flexner discovered a serum for the 



126 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



cure of spinal meningitis. Waldemar Haffkine, the 
bacteriologist, and an assistant of Pasteur, succeeded in 
combating the bubonic plague in India for which hu- 
manitarian service he has been decorated. We must not 
omit Aaron Aaronson, whose tragic death we all lament, 
and who discovered in Palestine the original wild wheat. 
This offers the possibility of reviving exhausted soils 
with roots gathered from Palestine. 

Turning now to the arts. In music, Meyerbeer, 
Halevy and Offenbach have won renown. In art Josef 
Israels was one of the great artists of the Jews and of 
the world. Leo Bakst received the Nobel Prize for de- 
vising the artistic product that bears his name. In the 
realm of drama we may mention Fulda and Bernstein, 
the playwrights; Rachel and Bernhardt, Barnay 1 and 
Von Sonenthal, who earned eminence in histrionic por- 
trayal. One of the most eminent jurists of England, 
predecessor of Sir Rufus Isaacs, was Sir George Jessel, 
first Solicitor General and later appointed Master of the 
Rolls in 1878. 

In the domain of statesmanship and diplomacy we 
will mention first Jean de Bloch who advocated univer- 
sal peace in his book on the "Future of War". This 
suggested to the Czar the project of the Hague Tribunal. 
Paul Hymans of Belgium, was chosen as the presiding 
officer of the Assembly of the League of Nations. 

Luigi Luzzatti, a man gifted with an encyclopedic mind, 
was Professor of Public Law in the University of Rome, 
became Premier of Italy, and was chosen four times as 
Minister of Finance. 

The last of this group is Walter Rathenau of Ger- 
many. In that most intricate of all economic problems, 
the solution of French-German reparation, his contri- 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



127 



bution may single him out by the historian of the future 
as one of the leading figures of our times. He is the 
son of a renowned father and was born in 1867. Direct- 
ing his attention to science, his doctor's thesis was on 
the subject of the absorption of light by the metals. He 
later discovered a method for the production of chlorine 
and the alkalies by electrolysis. This versatile man 
found time for the study of philosophy and for general 
culture and had furthermore the gift of vision. Later 
he was recognized as authority on everything connected 
with economics and industrial life, for he was a financier 
and organizer as well as a scientist, and he developed to 
yet greater proportions the General Electric Company 
established by his father. This tremendous industry 
employed nearly 70,000 workers and had a capital of 
about two hundred million marks. During the war he 
offered his services to his country in the domain of poli- 
tics and established the raw material section of the War 
Office. After the war Chancellor Wirth made him Min- 
ister of Reconstruction. This brought his service in 
close relation with the Reparation problem. Maurice 
Samuel, his biographer, says "He is a remarkable mix- 
ture of the hard-headed practical man and the blazing 
idealist." In spite of the anti-Semitism raging in 
Germany his country could not afford to ignore his 
genius and he represented Germany at the Genoa 
Conference, and served as Foreign Minister. Unfor- 
tunately, his promising career was cut short June 14, 
1922 by assassins, adherents alike of the Royalists and 
anti-Semites. 

Many of these Jews who reached eminence through 
their intellectual gifts have, unfortunately, not been 
identified with the Synagogue, if not estranged from it, 



128 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



such as Marx and Ricardo, Rubenstein, the composer, 
and Professor Chwolson, Brandes and Bergson. 

We mention them here as part of the story of the 
Jewish people. Although Benjamin Disraeli left the 
fold, like Heine, he was always passionately concerned 
in the welfare of those he continued to regard as his 
people. In his novels such as "Alroy" and "Tancred" 
he espoused their cause. It was he who said, "A Jew 
never ascended the scaffold except at an auto-da-fe. " 
He sought earnestly to safeguard Jewish interests in the 
Berlin Treaty. 

Notes and References : 
French Revolution : 

With the ready wit of "the wise woman of Tekoa," 
(II, Samuel, xiv, 2), a Jewess of Metz obtained permis- 
sion for the community to bake the Matzoth on Pass- 
over, on the plea that they were symbols of liberty. 
This was an improvement on the "Ritual Murder" and 
the old slander that Matzoth were made with blood. 

Montefiore, Cremieux, Munk : 

The men whose energy saved Eastern Jews from the 
consequences of the Blood Accusation of 1840, all ren- 
dered other eminent services to Israel. Montefiore in 
1846 influenced a Czar on behalf of the Russian Jews. 
In 1843 he obtained a "firman" from the Sultan of Tur- 
key and in 1863 one from the Sultan of Morocco to 
ameliorate the condition of their respective Jewish sub- 
jects. 

Think and Thank, by Cooper, (J. P. S. A.) is a story 
of Montefiore's childhood. The phrase formed the 
motto on his crest. 

Cremieux, great Frenchman and great Jew, obtained 
the abolition of the More ludaico, the degrading oath 
that had to be taken by every Jew on entering a Court 
of Justice. (See p. 95.) In 1870 he granted French 
citizenship to all Algerian Jews. 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



129 



Salomon Munk's researches in Arabic manuscript 
added much to Jewish literature. He induced Egyptian 
Jews to open communal schools. He discovered Ibn 
Gabirol behind Avicebron — the philosopher of Jewry 
behind the supposed scholastic of Christendom. (See 
H. M. J., note p. 83). 

Blood Accusation and Jewish Ritual. 

The most authoritative and exhaustive work on this 
subject is The Jezv and Human Sacrifice, by Hermann 
L. Strack. Eng. translation, N. Y., Bloch Pub. Co. 

Falashas : 

This term meaning "exiles," is applied to the Black 
Jews of Abvssinia, discovered by the Alliance Israelite. 
(See article by Feitlovitch, Am. /. Y. B., Vol. 22). 
"B'nai Israel/' is the name taken by the Black Jews of 
India. They were raised from poverty and ignorance 
and altogether reclaimed by the Sassoon family. White 
and Black Jews in India number today 25,000. 

Chinese Jews: 

In the year 1900 some 140 Chinese Jews existed in 
Kai-Fung-Foo. They are the dying remnant of a once 
flourishing Jewish colony. 

Jews began settling in China, certainly as early as 
200 b. c. e. In their most flourishing period there were 
as many as 20,000 Jewish souls. They possessed an 
elaborate sanctuary — a combination of sacrificial Temple 
ana Synagogue for prayer. It contained — more or less 
complete — scrolls of the law and of many of the pro- 
phets and writings; also some books of the Apocrypha 
and prayer books. 

Two marble tablets in their synagogue, dating from 
the early Middle Ages contained the history of their 
settlement. From these tablets we learn that they wor- 
shiped one God (Heaven) and avoided idolatry and 
superstition ; they honored parents and reverenced an- 
cestry. (Is it possible that the last may have been in- 
fluenced by Chinese ancestral worship?) They read 



CHINESE JEWS 



POLITICAL EMANCIPATION 



131 



the law, observed all Jewish Festivals and the four fasts. 
The tablets further state that they were highly esteemed 
for their industry, reliability, integrity and patriotic loy- 
alty to the Chinese dynasty. 

They came in close commercial relations with their 
brethren of Persia, though they frequently intermarried 
with local Mohammedans and with Chinese. 

Europe first learnt of these Chinese Jews in the 17th 
century through Catholic missionaries. But then their 
numbers had dwindled to less than 600 and their observ- 
ance of Judaism was dying out. 

To-day their Synagogue is in ruins and the impover- 
ished community without rabbi or schools and, fulfiling 
but few Jewish observances, is rapidly disappearing. 
English and American Jews have made many attempts 
to aid them in recent years, but failed because of local 
political disturbance. But the European Jews now resi- 
dent in Shanghai have taken up their cause and some- 
thing may yet be done to revive their Jewish life. 

See Glover's articles in Menorah Monthly, vols. iv. 
and v., also article in /. E., vol. iv. 

Jews of Roumania : 

American Jewish Year Book, 1901-2. Two articles 
by Dr. E. Schwarzfeld. 

Here we learn that the history of Jewish settlement in 
the Roumanian areas dates from the time when the Ro- 
mans first conquered Dacia. The history, though long, 
is uneventful, the quiet of Jewish life disturbed only by 
persecution through bigotory in time of peace and 
through savagery in time of war. In the sixteenth cen- 
tury Polish proselytes to Judaism took refuge in Mol- 
davia and Wallachia. The Jews of Moldavia followed 
all the professions and crafts. At the end of the 
eighteenth century we find them taking active share in 
the affairs of the communities in which they lived, where 
they received equal rights with those of Gentile subjects. 
They showed their patriotism in the revolution of 1848, 
the artist, Daniel Rosenthal, being one of the martyrs. 
Chapter x of this article portrays the internal organiza- 



132 MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 

tion of the Jewish community and chapter xi gives a 
record of its literature. 

The second article treats of the situation of the Jews 
of Roumania since the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. 

Gabriel Riesser: 

A tract on this subject gives also a good picture of the 
stormy times before 1848. Prof. G. Deutsch, Hebrew 
Union College, Cincinnati, 1906. 

The Alliance Israelite Universelle : 

American Jewish Year Book, 1900-1. Article by 
Jacques Bigart. 

This shows its dual service, political and educational, 
as outlined in its aims : 

1. To work everywhere for the emancipation and the 
moral progress of the Jews. 

2. To lend effectual support to those who suffer 
through being Jews. 

3. To encourage every publication intended to bring 
about this result. 

Theme for Discussion : 

Was Napoleon a genuine advocate of Jewish rights? 



CHAPTER X. 



AMERICA 

The entrance of the Jews into the Western Hemi- 
sphere began almost with the landing of Columbus at 
the newly discovered South America. Some were ban- 
ished there as exiles, others fled to it as a refuge. Little 
groups of both these classes we find in Lima, Peru and 
Mexico. That story is told in the closing chapter of the 
preceding volume — History of the Mediaeval Jews. 

Later some came voluntarily from countries that had 
established colonies in America ; some came from Hol- 
land, bringing their rabbis and scholars with them. In 
Brazil we see them settling in Pernambuco. Others 
settled in Dutch and French Guiana and in the British 
West Indies such as Barbadoes and Jamaica. 

Nor were their troubles always over when they set 
foot on the Western continent. The long arm of the 
Inquisition occasionally reached across the seas. But 
the Jews discovered that Holland was as tolerant as 
Portugal was oppressive, abroad as at home. Therefore, 
when Brazil passed from the Dutch to the Portuguese 
in 1654 the Jews resident there sought more hospitable 
settlements. So in this same year a small party of 
twenty-three Jews left Brazil and landed at New 
Amsterdam ; for that was Dutch too. Peter Stuyvesant, 
Governor of the colony, following the "classic" prece- 
dent of bigotry, would have prevented their admittance. 
He therefore wrote to the directors of the Dutch West 
Indies Company in Amsterdam requesting that "none of 
the Jewish nation be permitted to infest New Nether- 
lands/' But the Home Government maintained the 

133 



134 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



right of the Jews to settle, for it had already experienced 
the value of Jewish subjects both commercially and 
patriotically. This was the beginning of Jewish settle- 
ment in North America 268 years ago. 

Early Settlements. 

Among the first group of pioneers, one person stands 
out as distinctly as did Joseph among his brethren in the 
old Bible story. His name was Asser Levy. He first 
came into prominence by resisting the attempt to ex- 
clude Jews from the right and duty of defense of the 
colony; and insisted on his privilege to stand guard as 
a "burgher". His sterling character and general ability 
ultimately won for him the esteem alike of both Chris- 
tian and Jew. He showed his liberality in lending 
money for the building of the first Lutheran Church in 
New York. The high repute of this pioneer Jew reached 
to the neigboring colonies. 

Among others who distinguished themselves may be 
mentioned Dr. Nunez, a Marano, who escaped from the 
Portuguese Inquisition ; Aaron Lopez of Newport, who 
established a community in Leicester, Massachusetts, 
and founded an academy there ; Jacob Lombroso, a 
physician of the less tolerant Maryland colony. 

But Puritan New England was too bigoted for the 
most part to admit the Jews ! Hence their settlement 
there did not come till post-Colonial days. Yet it was 
while Puritanism was at fever heat and because of it, 
that England had readmitted the Jews. Many of these 
American colonies based their first constitutions largely 
on the Hebrew Pentateuch, — the colony of New Haven 
in 1638 and that of Massachusetts in 1641. But such 
ironic contradictions had always entered into the unique 




AARON LOPEZ 



136 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



experience of Israel. We must make an exception, how- 
ever, in the case of the colony of Rhode Island, founded 
by the broad minded Roger Williams. So Jews settled 
in its chief town, Newport, then commercially a more 
important seaport than New York. In the 18th century 
some Jews found their way to the Carolinas amd to 
Pennsylvania. Others established a community in Sa- 
vannah, Georgia. Isaac Minis was the first white child 
born in Georgia. Our brethren settled in Texas while 
it was still part of Mexico. Aaron Levy who established 
himself in Pennsylvania, founded the town of Aarons- 
burg, giving it a public square as well as donating the 
ground for a school and for a church. 

By the time New Amsterdam became New York 
(1664), passing from the Dutch to the English, the 
number of its Jews had considerably increased. While 
there weie at first some restrictions against Jews settled 
in the American colonies, against their engaging in retail 
trade, holding civil posts, and in some instances against 
their worshiping publicly, — such prohibitions were 
gradually removed through their dignified and deter- 
mined stand. The English law with regard to that ran : 
"Admit all persons what religion soever, quietly to in- 
habit within the government. " That meant the right of 
Jewish worship in public. They built their first syna- 
gogue in New York in 1729. The dedication of other 
synagogues and cemeteries later followed. As most of 
the early settlers were Sephardim (Spanish or Portu- 
guese) the congregations they established were of that 
ritual. In 1729 they were permitted to take an oath 
without the addition of the words "on the true faith of a 
Christian." 

Maryland most stubbornly resisted Jewish settlement 



AMERICA 



137 



and passed a law that whoever denied the Trinity should 
be put to death. It did not grant the Jew equal civic 
rights till 1825. 

Corresponding struggles for civic rights and liberties 
were being made by our brethren who were settling in 
Canada. Time and again the Legislature there refused 
to admit Jews elected to its membership, because they 
declined to take an oath that violated their conscience. 
It was not until 1832 that that civic right was granted 
and they were admitted to the Canadian Parliament of 
Great Britain. 

Judah Touro. 

One of the families that took advantage of the toler- 
ance of Rhode Island to settle in Newport, was that of 
.Touro. Here was born Judah Touro in 1775. In 1802 
he settled in New Orleans which was still French terri- 
tory ; for it was not till the following year that the 
Louisiana Purchase went into effect. Opening a store 
here, his industry and genius rapidly won him pros- 
perity. Soon his ships were on many seas and he ac- 
quired vast lands. But he showed his public spirit at the 
time of the defense of New Orleans by Andrew Jack- 
son ; he entered the ranks as a private soldier and was 
severely wounded. It was he, together with Amos Law- 
rence, who supplied the funds needed for the completion 
of the Bunker Hill Monument, each giving $10,000. A 
tablet telling of this munificent service was placed upon 
it, prepared by John Adams, Daniel Webster and other 
eminent Americans. 

He aided in the emancipation of whatever negro 
slaves came under his supervision. 

An instance of his wide reaching philanthropy was 



JUDAH TOURO 



AMERICA 



139 



the purchase of a church mortgage about to be fore- 
closed and presenting in to the congregation. When he 
died his will provided half a million dollars for benevo- 
lent causes, which was an enormous sum in those days. 
It gave alms houses to New Orleans, aid to many Jew- 
ish congregations, contributed to hospitals and asylums 
and even provided homes for the poor in Jerusalem. His 
tombstone in Newport summarizes his character in this 
epitaph : 

''Inscribed in the book of philanthropy 
to be remembered forever. " 




JEWISH CEMETERY AT NEWPORT 

A street and a park are named after him in Newport, 
his birthplace, and Longfellow has made memorable the 
cemetery (still maintained by his providing care) in his 
poem "The Jewish Cemetery at Newport" : 
"A hand unseen 
Scattering its bounty like a summer rain 
Still keeps their graves and their re'membrance green". 



140 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



A further quotation gives us a glimpse of the 
checkered history of the Jew : 

'The very names recorded here are strange, 
Of foreign accent, and of different climes; 
Alvares and Rivera interchange 

With Abraham and Jacob of old times. 

How came they here? What burst of Christian hate, 

What persecution, merciless and blind, 
Drove o'er the sea — that desert desolate — 

These Ishmaels and Hagars of mankind? 

They lived in narrow streets and lanes obscure, 
Ghetto and Judenstrass, in mirk and mire; 

Taught in the school of patience to endure 
The life of anguish and the death of fire." 

The Revolutionary War. 

The Jews in America had already showed their patrio- 
tism in volunteering their services in the French and 
Indian War. Then came the struggle with the mother 
country. In making their plea for independence it is 
notable that the public men of the colonies turned to 
the Hebrew Scriptures as authority for civic rights and 
liberties. (See note page 19 — Reformation and the He- 
brew Bible.) Like the earlier Puritans, so now the 
Colonials were compared with oppressed Israel in Egypt, 
in their struggle for freedom. 

When the colonies united in 1776 to wrest their inde- 
pendence from Great Britain, Jews were among those 
who worked, fought and died for its cause, giving to it 
money, supplies and men; though a few remained loyal 
to the royalists. Charleston raised a voluntary infantry 
corps, composed almost entirely of Jews. Among the 
distinguished patriots were Francis Salvador, of South 



AMERICA 



141 



Carolina, Major Benjamin Nones, of Philadelphia, dis- 
tinguished for his bravery; Esther and David Hays of 
New York; also Rabbi Gershom Seixas, a trustee of 
King's college, now Columbia University, and the 
founder of a synagogue in Philadelphia. Of Jewish 
officers in the Revolutionary army, twenty-seven are 
specified, among them four lieutenant colonels, three 
majors and six captains. A chronicler writes — "they 
were ever foremost in hazardous enterprise/' 

Patriotic Jews helped the cause in other ways, in sup- 
plying army needs and also in official service. Lieuten- 
ant Colonel David Franks in 1784 was sent on a peace 
mission to Europe and was later entrusted with con- 
fidential diplomatic tasks abroad. He was given a tract 
of land in recognition of his service in the Revolutionary 
War. 

Haym Salomon in patriotically serving the colony's 
cause, suffered imprisonment by the enemy. He escaped 
and later was entrusted with the supervision of the fin- 
ances of the colonies. When it was in dire straits he 
lent the Government $350,000. For this loan America 
is still his family's debtor. 

When the victory came that ushered into being the 
United States, the Jew with his fellow countrymen 
hailed Washington as its first father and six different 
Jewish communities sent congratulatory addresses. In 
one of his replies he wrote : 

"It is now no more that toleration is spoken of as 
if it were by the indulgence of one class of people 
that another enjoyed the exercise of their inherent 
natural rights, for happily the Government of the 
United States, w T hich gives to bigotry no sanction, to 
persecution no assistance, requires only that they who 
live under its protection should demean themselves as 



COM MOD ORE URIAH P. LEVY 



AMERICA 



143 



good citizens in giving it on all occasions their effec- 
tual support. . . . May the children of the stock of 
Abraham, who dwell in this land, continue to merit 
and enjoy the good will of the other inhabitants, while 
every one shall sit in safety under his own vine and 
fig-tree and there shall be none to make him afraid. " 

The Constitution of the Federal Government now de- 
clared that "no religious test shall ever be required as a 
qualification to any office of public trust under the 
United States." With Church and State now complete- 
ly separated, the Jew in the republic has the same rights 
as the Gentile. For this provision was accordingly rec- 
ognized in the separate laws of the different States of 
the Union. 

Commodore Levy and 
Mordecai Noah. 

Jews fought for their country in the war of 1812, 
notably Brigadier General Moses Bloomfield. Among 
others who served our country in this and in the Mexi- 
can War may be mentioned, Lieut. Henry Seeligson and 
General David De Leon, twice thanked by Congress for 
gallantry. The most distinguished was Uriah P. Levy, 
who began his naval career as a cabin boy. But alas, 
the prejudiced even in America could never forget that 
he was a Jew. He had fought his way in each step 
toward promotion through bitter religious bigotry. He 
was nobly jealous of the honor of his country and of 
his religion, and never allowed anyone to besmirch the 
one or ridicule the other. Occasionally he had to fight 
a duel in defense of his good name and that of his 
faith. As many as six different times he was court- 
martialed. This treatment made his checkered career 
not so dissimilar to that of Alfred Dreyfus of a later 




MORDECAI MANUEL NOAH 



AMERICA 



145 



day. Like the latter he too was ultimately restored to 
his rank and completely vindicated, finally attaining the 
exalted position of Commodore. The esteem that he 
ultimately won, was shown on his visit to New York in 
1834, when he was granted the freedom of the City. 
This epitaph occurs on his tombstone — "He was the 
father of the law which abolished corporal punishment 
in the navy." 

An interesting figure of the early part of the 19th 
century was the versatile Mordecai Manuel Noah, an 
orphan boy starting with the humble trade of carver. 
He devoted his evenings to study and became a play- 
wright, lawyer and statesman. Among the important 
positions he filled was that of Associate Judge of the 
New York Court of Special Sessions, High Sheriff and 
later, Surveyor of the Port of New York. As Consul 
to Tunis in 1813 he succeeded in rescuing some Ameri- 
cans from, Algerian pirates in a manner that strength- 
ened American prestige abroad. 

Seeing the suffering of his brethren in Eastern 
Europe, he conceived the idea of a haven where their 
rights would be legally assured. So he will always be 
remembered for his romantic attempt to establish an 
American Zion on Grand Island, outside Buffalo. 
Though he purchased the land, which he named Ararat, 
dedicated it in 1825, and invited the Jews of the world 
to settle there, the project met no response and was 
abandoned. Yet, not relinquishing his ardor, he pleaded 
for the right of the Jews to demand settlement in Pales- 
tine. His discourse in 1844 delivered before a vast audi- 
ence — an appeal to the Christians for this Jewish restor- 
ation — is the most remarkable of all his addresses. For 
in it he pointed out the duty of the Christian to help the 



146 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Jew to acquire the Holy Land. If he lived today, he 
would see his dream in process of realization. In the 
midst of editing many journals, producing many popu- 
lar plays and books and presiding as a judge, he con- 
tined a staunch pleader and worker for his co-religion- 
ists to the end of his life. 

Patriotism. 

The Jew was making America his country. Enjoy- 
ing its benefits, he was prepared to suffer in its cause. 
In all its great conflicts, he sent more than his quota of 
volunteers. David de Leon distinguished himself for 
his gallantry in the Mexican War; Alfred Mordecai, 
Major of Ordnance, aided it by scientific application of 
martial mechanism. 

Many Jews responded to President Lincoln's call for 
recruits in 1861. That Lieut. Col Leopold Newman 
expressed desire to remain in front at the battle of 
Chancellorsville, where his foot was shattered, is one of 
many examples of dauntless bravery of Jewish soldiers. 
Leopold Blumenberg, of Baltimore, abandoned his busi- 
ness for the cause and became Major of a regiment he 
helped to organize. As Colonel, he was shot in the thigh 
at Antietam. Later, he was made Brevet-Brigadier 
General of the United States Volunteers. 

Frederick Knefler enlisted as a private and became 
successively, Captain, Major, Colonel and Brigadier 
General. For meritorious service at Chickamauga he 
was promoted to the rank of Brevet-Major General. 
This is the highest rank attained by a Jew in the Ameri- 
can Army. 

Among a very long list of those who volunteered their 
services in the Civil War, special mention should be 



AMERICA 



147 



made of the following: Captain Frank Mayer, Captain 
Joseph B. Greenhut, a Gettysburg hero; Brevet Briga- 
dier General Edward S. Salomon and Philip J. 
Joachimsen, founder of the Hebrew Sheltering Guar- 
dian Society. Lieutenant Colonel Israel Moses, sur- 
geon ; Captain Edward Wertheimer, Colonel Max Ein- 
stein, Captain and Brigadier Adjutant General Abra- 
ham Hart, Captain Nathan D. Menken, — all advanced 
for gallantry on the field. Sergeant Elias Leon Hyne- 
man, shot on the field of battle, and Dr. Max E. Cohen, 
killed in heroic effort to save others. 

Naturally, Jews in the South no less patriotically took 
up the Confederate cause. Adolph Proskauer, of 
Mobile, was four times w r ounded. Yet he lived to serve 
in the Alabama legislature and was president of a con- 
gregation. Captain Levi Myers Harby, who had served 
under the United States flag in the War of 1812, in the 
Mexican and Seminole Wars, enrolled in the Confeder- 
ate navy, where he was made a commodore. Dr. Mark 
Cohen, of Charleston, was one of three soldiers who 
volunteered to hurl aside explosive shells thrown into 
the Confederate ranks. They sacrificed their ow r n lives, 
but saved their company. 

Judah P. Benjamin rose step by step by sheer force 
of intellectual vigor until he became a United States 
Senator, as well as the greatest orator of his day. When 
the South seceded, he became Secretary of War and 
later Secretary of State of the Confederacy. With the 
downfall of the Confederate cause, he settled in Eng- 
land, continued his legal practice there and ended his 
remarkable career as leader of the English Bar. 



148 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



South and Central America. 

South America covers an area of nine million square 
miles — that is three times the area of the United States, 
yet it has but a population of eighty million, consisting 
of white, Indian and negro. 

Jews have been drifting to this Western continent 
ever since the days of its first discovery. Jamaica was 
perhaps the earliest important Jewish settlement in Cen- 
tral or South America. In the palmy days of Jamaica 
when it was an important trade center, that is, in the 
latter half of the eighteenth century, the Jews there 
were both numerous and influential and we are told that 
"its entire foreign and intercolonial trade was in Jewish 
hands." Unlike the Spanish, the English abolished in- 
stead of introducing Jewish disabilities. This was the 
first English possession that took this tolerant step. 
Completely enfranchised in 1831, they soon occupied 
civil and military posts. In 1848 eight of forty-seven 
members of the Colonial assembly were Jews which, out 
of regard for them, adjourned on Yom Kippur. At 
that time there were some 2,500 Jews in Jamaica, but 
their numbers declined with the decline of the Island 
following a natural law. 

While the early settlers in South America as in the 
North, came first as refugees, many of the later settlers 
came in the voluntary spirit of the emigrant, who, with 
a touch of adventure and a sense of enterprise, seeks 
fortune in a new land. So thus all through the nine- 
teenth century our brethren from the Continent have 
found their way across the Atlantic. But the latest 
group of these in the Eighties hieing from Russia, were 
also victims of persecution. This latter migration to 
South America from the land of the Slav, paralleled a 



AMERICA 



149 



similar movement of Jewish emigrants to North Amer- 
ica which will be told in the next chapter. 

Argentina, an enlightened and progressive country, 
has the largest Jewish population. It has been called 
the "melting pot of South America." Essentially a white 
man's land, it is the second country of Latin America ; 
with a population of nine million, it could accommodate 
seventy-five million. Its capital, Buenos Aires, is the 
fourth American city in the Western Continent. The 
fact that among its many periodicals some are pub- 
lished in Yiddish and Russian, is suggestive of its cos- 
mopolitan character. Of its 110,000 Jewish inhabi- 
tants, over half live in the capital — the rest in the agri- 
cultural colonies. Here every kind of occupation is fol- 
lowed by our brethren from banking to stock raising, 
and among them will be found every type of artisan 
from the blacksmith to the baker. 

Although Brazil is much larger than the United 
States, and has a population of 20,000,000, but 5,000 of 
these are our own brethren. Yet the Jews were the 
first to transplant the sugar cane from the Island of 
Madeira. Naturally the largest number today are found 
in the capital, Rio de Janeiro. One city, Para, chose a 
Jewish Mayor. Some in the more sparsely settled 
centers marry out of the faith, and are lost altogether to 
Israel. 

Chili has but 500 of our brethren. Some of these may 
be descendants of the early settlers who lived as Mar- 
anos in the dark days. Commercially they are prosper- 
ous, but religiously, there is much left to be desired. 
Without the stress of the old persecution, many, alas, 
live Maranos in spirit today. — that is, they do not reveal 
their Judaic identity. No synagogue has been reared by 



150 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



them and only on the Holy Days of New Year and 
Atonement, do they, by assembling in the homes of some 
private individuals, remember their spiritual obligations. 

This, unfortunately, is the story of many of the Jew- 
ish settlements in South American countries when they 
are of small numbers. What can we expect of Colombia 
when it has but 80 Jewish souls? It has no synagogue, 
but it possesses a cemetery. What volumes condensed 
in that summary! Naught to keep alive the Jewish 
spark and only a place to decently inter it when extinct. 

Paraguay has 150 Jewish families. With two syna- 
gogues (one of them Portuguese) but with a single 
Rabbi, its religious spirit is kept alive but in a fitful way. 

The record of the not quite 500 brethren in Venezuela 
is but a replica of other communities ; nor is there 
a much different chronicle to give of our brethren in 
Panama, except to say that the older — that is, the native 
Jews, are the most important merchants ; yet, Colon 
boasts of a synagogue which conducts services both on 
Friday evening and on Saturday. Panama City has two 
congregations and many philanthropic societies to take 
care of stranded Jews. 

Central America being located nearer the tropics, con- 
tains but few Jewish men who are married. Those who 
are, send their children to the United States or to 
Europe to be educated; so there is no story of Jewish 
interest to be told of them. The unsettled condition of 
Mexico in recent years has not been favorable to Jew- 
ish activity; though there was a time when there were 
15,000 Jews there. 

The West Indies constitutes a chain of islands of 
which Cuba is the largest. At one time every island had 
Jewish settlers. But their numbers have dwindled dur- 



AMERICA 



151 



ing the last half century, partly due to unfavorable politi- 
cal conditions. Although a Jew was the first to set foot 
in Cuba over 400 years ago, there are but 1,000 there 
today. It was not until 1881 that they were legally per- 
mitted to reside there, and only since the close of the 
Spanish American War has a public Jewish service been 
allowed; yet, it was our brethren who largely developed 
its two great industries, sugar and tobacco in the early 
days. That Havana has a Y. M. H. A. today suggests 
the possibility that the Cuba of tomorrow may not have 
an unworthy Jewish story to tell. 

The Dutch possession of Curacao was one of the first 
real Jewish communities in the Western hemisphere 
over 200 years ago. In 1654 many fled here from Brazil 
after the Portuguese had conquered it. It has a Reform 
as well as an Orthodox Synagogue. There were days 
when 2,000 of our brethren lived there. There are but 
600 today, although these are persons of affluence and 
importance and the Queen of Holland appointed five 
Jews of the thirteen who make up the Colonial Council 
of Government. 

A word should be said of our brethren in the United 
States, possessions of Latin America. While Jews are 
beginning to settle in Porto Rico — one being a Judge of 
the Supreme Court, and another the Assistant Attorney 
General — the acquisition is too recent for a history. 
America acquired the Virgin Islands from Denmark but 
five years ago, but the most important, St. Thomas, had 
about 500 Jewish souls there three quarters of a century 
ago who largely controlled its commerce. 

No movement that has stirred Israel throughout the 
world but has touched South American Jewry at some 
point. Here and there one will meet Zionist Societies; 



152 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



at other places, local committees for participance in the 
"Jewish Congress" that was planned to be held here, but 

because of the war, was for a time abandoned, It was 
revived again in 1922. 

South America is only at the beginning of its de- 
velopment. It has suffered under the backwardness of a 
Spanish regime which it has but recently shaken off. 
The awakening is yet to come ! Probably our brethren 
may contribute their share in the upbuilding of new 
centers of civilization in this south-western hemi- 
sphere, and perhaps another great chapter in Jewish 
history will here be written. 

Notes and Reference : 

Jews in America : 

Publications of the American Jewish Historical 
Society, "Jews in the American Revolution/ ' vols, iii, iv, 
vi, xii. "Jews in Diplomatic Correspondence of U. S." 
vol. xv. "Jews in Maryland" and "Commodore Levy". 
Am. Jew. Year Book, 5663. "Jews in Latin America." 
Am. Jewish Year Book, 5678. 

For "Victims of Inquisition in Mexico and Peru" see 
History of the Jews in America, Chap, iii, Peter Wier- 
nik, Jewish Press Pub Co., New York. 

The American Jezv as Patriot, Soldier and Citizen, by 
Simon Wolf, edited by Louis Edward Levy, Brentano, 
1895. It is a valuable document of painstaking research. 
It is the most complete answer to those who question 
Jewish patriotism. It contains long lists of names of 
Jews who have served their country in all the wars In 
which America has been engaged, and it is full of in- 
teresting data of Jewish prowess and exploits. We 
recommend it for those who desire fuller information of 
Jewish activity on the field of battle. 

The Hebrews in America, Isaac Markens, New York. 



AMERICA 



Separation of Church and State : 

The Constitution declared in 1887 — largely through 
the influence of Thomas Jefferson — that no religious 
test should be used as a qualification for public office. 
Later the first amendment was passed, declaring "Con- 
gress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." In- 
dividual States gradually adopted similar liberal pro- 
visions. 

Uriah P. Levy, American Jewish Year Book, 5663. 
Gershom M. Seixas, Am. J. Y. Book, 5665. 

Theme for Discussion : 

Develop the subject — the better the Jew the better the 
American. 



FOR JEWS FALLEN IN THE CIVIL WAR, CYPRESS HILLS, 
BROOKLYN 



CHAPTER XI. 



JEWISH ACHIEVEMENT IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 

The first great wave of Jewish immigration was 
Sephardic (those coming from Portugal or Spain). 
The second wave was Ashkanazic (those coming from 
German and Austrian lands). Beginning in the 18th 
century it did not subside till the latter part of the 19th. 
Its members scattered South, East and West. With the 
growth of America these communities grew steadily in 
numbers in economic and intellectual importance and in 
civic value. The Jewish population in the United States 
estimated by Mordecai Noah in 1818, but 3,000, by 1848 
had increased to more than 50,000; and nearly a quarter 
of a million thirty years later. 
Literature. 

Soon American Jewry began its contribution to litera- 
ture. 

Penina Moise, born in Charleston, S. C, in 1797, early 
showed a poetic gift. Like the novelist, Grace Aguilar, 
of England, her contemporary, she was a great sufferer ; 
like her, too, a woman of unfaltering religious faith. 
Though Miss Moise lost her sight and fortune, she never 
lost her sense of humor and her cheer. She contributed 
many poems to the Jewish hymnal. 

She was but a humble advance herald of her more 
gifted sister, Emma Lazarus. The genius of the latter 
developed at an early age ; she received her first inspira- 
tion in the Civil War. The choice of her themes showed 
her a woman of wide culture; many were selected from 
the classics. Her translation of the poems of Heinrich 
Heine won her further renown. (See page 83). 

155 



EM MA LAZARUS 



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157 



But just as the Damascus slander stirred the Jewish- 
ness of Cremieux, hitherto aloof from the Synagogue, 
so the persecution of the Jews in Russia forty years 
later, stirred into life the Jewish soul of Emma Lazarus. 
She lent her gifted pen to the cause not only in verse 
but also in prose. The ideals of the Jew that had so far 
not touched her, from now on found in her a passionate 
advocate. She further enriched Jewish literature by 
translating, — from the original, but mainly from the 
German, — poems of Ibn Gabirol and Jehuda Halevy. 
(See H. M. J., pp. 75-77; 97, 101-102.) 

Her sonnet, "The Colossus/' is inscribed on the por- 
tals of the Statue of Liberty standing in New York 
Harbor. Unfortunately, she died in her prime, but 
not before attaining literary eminence as Jewess and 
as American. 

Poets of lesser magnitude have followed as well as 
essayists, journalists and novelists. 

Jewish literature was further fostered by the Jewish 
Publication Society of America,, founded thirty-three 
years ago in Philadelphia and flourishing still. It has 
issued 115 volumes including history, biography, essays, 
fiction and year books. Its most important production 
was Graetz' "History of the Jews" in five volumes, and 
a revised translation of the Bible. One of its founders 
and the chairman of its publication committee is Judge 
Mayer Sulzberger of Philadelphia. It was fortunate in 
having as its Secretary for many years, Miss Henrietta 
Szold, one of the most cultured Jewesses in America. 
A Jewish Publication Society was called into being in 
the early part of the 19th century and flourished for a 
few years. 

The most notable Jewish work produced in America 



158 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



was the "Jewish Encyclopedia" in twelve volumes, 
planned by Dr. Isidore Singer, with Gentiles as well as 
Jews serving on its editorial board. 

We may mention here the organization of the Ameri- 
can Jewish Historical Society whosq) researches have 
adde valuable data to the records of Jewish life on the 
Western continent. 

American Jews, like those of Europe, have also made 
contributions to arts and sciences. They have attained 
eminence in music, as composers, musicians, concert 
leaders and promoters of opera. In the drama, as stage 
managers, theatre builders and actors. They have con- 
tributed their share in astronomy and in medical dis- 
covery. They have rendered service in the fields of 
economics and sociology. 

Following Gentile precedent, there have been estab- 
lished in America Young Men's and Young Women's 
Hebrew Associations. These have offered cultural and 
social opportunities to young people in the cities. The 
Jewish Chatauqua movement, established by Dr. Henry 
Berkowitz, was instituted to further Jewish education 
through correspondence, public assemblies and through 
publications. 

Philanthropy^ 

The American Jewish community was soon large and 
influential enough for its voice to be heard in behalf of 
its oppressed co-religionists throughout the world. These 
appeals have not been without influence on presidents, 
cabinets, congresses and foreign diplomats. American 
Jews demonstrated benevolent activity in seeking to ob- 
tain the Jewish right of residence, in the '60's, in 
Switzerland and in the provinces of Turkey, and labored 



JACOB H. SCHIFF 



160 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



for passport rights in Russia and raised their protest 
against Russian barbarity, Roumanian expulsion and 
Moroccan persecution, and stretched helping hands 
across the seas to suffering Israel. 

With the steady increase in numbers, relief of the 
poor is undertaken by large Jewish communities of 
America on a colossal scale. Nearly all the large cities 
have federated their .charities to systematize their work 
and increase their resources. The last quarter of a 
century has been marked by the establishment of orphan 
asylums, hospitals, and sisterhoods; homes for the aged, 
for infants, for delinquents and immigrants ; also by 
organizing agricultural colonies, farm schools and tech- 
nical schools ; likewise schools of philanthropy, for phil- 
anthropy has become a profession. The Settlement has 
become an important institution in American cities. 
Established in humbler localities settlements exercise a 
benevolent influence on the neighborhood and have been 
instrumental in introducing many social reforms. 

In this connection we may mention the institution of 
Benevolent Orders, i. e., mutual benefit societies, some- 
what on the Masonic pattern. Although instituted pri- 
marily for the benefit of their members, contributing dues 
to the sick and legacies to the family at death, the aim of 
aiding suffering Israel at home and abroad has been 
brought steadily to the fore by these orders. This is par- 
ticularly true of the Independent Order of B'nai B'rith 
(Sons of the Covenant), founded in 1843. It has lodges 
all over the country and a number abroad, and a member- 
ship of about 40,000. A number of benevolent orders of 
less prominence have later come into existence, such as 
the Free Sons of Israel, and Independent Order of 
B'rith Abraham, the latter having a larger membership. 



162 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



The third great influx of Jews to America was mostly 
Russian. It began with the expulsion of Jews from 
Russian villages in 1882. As the German wave had 
largely exceeded in numbers the Portuguese, so the Rus- 
sian now exceeded the German. 

The preponderating influence long continued in Ger- 
man hands, for many of the Russian immigrants were 
poor and needed setting on their feet in various respects, 
and their advent was followed by the establishment of 
new charitable and philanthropic societies and the en- 
larging of those already existing. But immigrants and 
their offspring are fast acquiring both means and pres- 
tige. 

Still the complexity of the Jewish problem with grow- 
ing numbers, made it necessary to call into being a new 
organization known as the "American Jewish Commit- 
tee." Just as in Europe, France had produced the Al- 
liance Israelite Universelle, England the Anglo-Jewish 
Association, and Germany, the Hilf sverein der deutschen 
Juden, to safeguard Jewish interests in all lands, so 
this- important organization is lending its valuable co- 
operation to look after the welfare of suffering Jews 
throughout the world and to plead for its right before 
the great Powers. Its President today is the communal 
leader, Louis Marshall. 

Jacob H. Schiff was the most eminent philanthropist 
of American Jewry. He was head of a great banking 
house, and like the Rothschilds, influenced international 
movements. A man of profound judgment, his word on 
public questions was ever listened to with eagerness by 
distinguished men of affairs. A patron of learning, his 
benefactions have enriched many universities, particu- 
larly Harvard, Columbia and Barnard College. 



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163 



But that which won for him the deepest veneration 
of the Jewish community has been his untiring service 
for the welfare of his co-religionists. He was the leader 
of American Israel for forty years in every philan- 
thropic enterprise. The problem of persecutions abroad, 
of immigration to America, of charity federation, of the 
incurably sick, of the ignorant and the unfortunate, re- 
ceived a large portion of his time and thought as well 
as gifts from his munificence. 

A staunch Jew, he did much for religious education. 
The presentation of the building for the Jewish Theo- 
logical Seminary of Xew York gave new importance to 
that institution. At the same time, he contributed much 
to endow the Hebrew Union College for the training 
of rabbis of the Reform School. This brings us to the 
most vital field of Jewish concern. 

Religion. 

YYe have seen that as soon as Israel settled in the 
New World, they established sanctuaries. They realized 
that 'not on bread alone doth man live." In the midst 
of material success there was ever the idealizing touch. 
In the early years of the 19th century. Isaac Leeser was 
the first to introduce the custom of weekly sermons in 
the pulpit each Sabbath and was one of the first to issue 
a Jewish weekly paper, the Occident. His most im- 
portant service was a translation of the Bible into Eng- 
lish. He also translated the Sephardic liturgy and 
issued some text books. This industrious worker also 
laid the foundation of an orphanage and of a Jewish 
College. 

Gradually there came from growing Israel, pamph- 
lets, Jewish weeklies, volumes of sermons and cate- 



164 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



chisms, religious school manuals and new rituals in 
German and in English. 

But it was not till later on in the 19th century that 
American Jewry felt the need of linking up its scattered 
communities. To Isaac M. Wise is due the credit of 
organizing in 1875 the Union of American Hebrew Con- 
gregations. This was composed of all the synagogues 
of the liberal wing. ' It meets bi-ennially in one of the 
large cities of the country. One of its offshoots is the 
Synagogue and School Extension. It publishes school 
literature and establishes religious schools as well as 
extension services in outlying places and in large cities. 
He also founded in connection with the Union, the 
Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati for the training of 
Reform ministers. Up to this time most of the rabbis 
had hailed from foreign lands, and the majority 
preached in German. Here then was the beginning of an 
American Jewish ministry. American Israel is further in- 
debted to the untiring energy of Isaac M. Wise for orig- 
inating the Central Conference of American Rabbis. This 
important organization took the place of those rabbinic 
Conferences to which reference has already been made. 
They discuss at their annual conventions the religious 
problems that come before American Jewry and through 
it the effort is made to bring uniformity in Jewish ritual 
and practice. With this further end in view, it has issued 
a Union Prayer Book, a Union Hymnal, and a Union 
Hagada, also a Minister's Hand-book. It publishes an 
annual report of its proceedings. 

The Orthodox Jews, who form the large majority, 
have followed the precedent of the Reform, in form- 
ing organizations on similar lines. Hence, the Union 



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165 



of American Orthodox Congregations, as well as the 
United Synagogue of America. 

The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, estab- 
lished in 1885 in New York, trains rabbis for Orthodox 
and Conservative pulpits. It won special distinction 
when Solomon Schechter, reader in rabbinics at Cam- 
bridge, was chosen as its head. This remarkable man, 
in addition to his profound scholarship was gifted with 
a brilliant literary style. This made his "Studies in 
Judaism" and his "Aspects of Jewish Theology" very 
readable, for their diction as well as for their erudition. 
His best contribution to Jewish literature was his dis- 
covery in the Geniza at Cairo of fragments of the He- 
brew text of Ecclesiasticus. (See note T. Y. p. 15). 

To complete this record, mention should be made of 
the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary for the 
orthodox and a proposed Jewish Institute of Religion 
for the Reform ; both in New York City. 

The attempt to introduce a chief rabbi in the United 
States has not been successful, not harmonizing with 
the freedom and democracy of the American spirit. 

Jewish Education. 

Before the institution of the public school, or while 
it was still in its infancy, American Jews maintained 
parochial schools where both religious and secular in- 
struction was imparted. Later, religion was taught in 
Sabbath Schools attached to the Synagogues. 

Rebecca Gratz of Philadelphia, the Rebecca of 
Scott's "Ivanhoe," established the first Jewish Sabbath 
School in Philadelphia in 1835. Later Hebrew and the 
Bible were imparted in the Cheder (room) to the children 
of immigrant families. This mode of instruction imported 



166 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



from Eastern Europe was of doubtful value, either 
religious or educational. Far better were the Talmud 
Torah Schools (Study of the Law) which we find es- 
tablished in all cities where large numbers of the Or- 
thodox Jews are found. But the Bureau of Education 
organized in recent years (New York) has greatly im- 
proved their curriculum and their methods of instruc- 
tion. Distinction should be made between the religious 
school of the Reform congregations, meeting on Sun- 
days, and that of the Conservative that meets two or 
three times each week as well ; the additional time being 
spent in the study of Hebrew. Quite a revival has taken 
place in recent years in the cultivation of Hebrew, im- 
parting it as a modern tongue and encouraging its use 
as a spoken language. 

i 

Women's Organizations. 

The Council of Jewish Women was organized in 
Chicago in 1893 at the time of the World's Fair. Its 
motto, "Faith and Philanthropy/' explains its dual func- 
tion. It has branches all over the Union as well as 
junior auxiliaries. Its chief concern is the Jewish 
girl, particularly the newly arrived immigrant. The 
sick, the blind, the delinquent, also come under its 
care. It likewise conducts Bible classes, and mission 
schools. It is in touch with Women's movements 
throughout the land. 

The Federation of Temple Sisterhoods is the women's 
adjunct of the Union of American Hebrew Congrega- 
tions, though of but recent origin. It is a union of the 
Ladies' Auxiliary Societies connected with most con- 
gregations. Its concern is with the Temple itself, fos- 
tering attendance at divine worship, providing a social 



STICE LOUIS DEMBITZ BRAXDEIS 



168 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



factor to its members, and stimulating religiousness in 
the home. The Women's League of the United Syna- 
gogue of America serves a similar function for Con- 
servative Judaism. Jewish women in America are tak- 
ing a steadily increasing part in the conduct of com- 
munal affairs. They serve as trustees of congregations 
and are on the boards of philanthropic institutions. 

Eminent Men. 

Many prominent Jews have contributed important ser- 
vice to their co-religionists. Some have been called to 
posts of honor and responsibility. Among these we may 
specify the following : The many sided scholar Michael 
Heilprin was a confidant of Louis Kossuth while in 
Hungary and an anti-slavery champion in America as 
well as an untiring worker for Russian refugees. He 
believed that the Jewish masses would find their salva- 
tion in agriculture. His son Angelo Heilprin became 
famous as a naturalist. 

Benjamin F. Peixotto was appointed by President 
Grant as Consul General to Roumania. He used his 
efforts to ameliorate the condition of the Jews there. 
His untiring zeal brought the wrongs of Israel to a 
focus and resulted in special protection being promised 
the Roumanian Jews at the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. 

Oscar S. Straus was appointed Minister to Turkey 
and later Ambassador to the same country. He was 
the first Jew called to the Cabinet. The Portfolio given 
him by President Roosevelt was Commerce and Labor. 
He also served on the Hague Tribunal. His works, 
"Origin of the Republican Form of Government in the 
United States," "Roger Williams," and "Religious Lib- 



SENATOR DAVID LEVY YULEE 



170 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



erty in the U. S." show the influence of Jewish teach- 
ing on America's struggle for independence. 

It has come to be almost a precedent to appoint a Jew 
as Ambassador to Turkey, so in addition to Oscar 
Straus, this post has been filled by Solomon Hirsch, 
Henry Morgenthau, and Abram I. Elkus. In 1921, 
President Harding appointed Albert D. Lasker, Chair- 
man of the Shipping Board, and in 1922, Rabbi Joseph 
S. Kornfeld, Minister to Persia, and Simon Brentano, 
Minister to Hungary. Six Jews have served in the 
United States Senate, — Judah P. Benjamin, David Levy 
Yulee, Benjamin F. Jonas, Simon Guggenheim, Joseph 
Simon, and Isidor Raynor. At different times twenty- 
nine Jews have been members of Congress and many 
will be found in both houses of State Legislatures. A 
number of Jews have been raised to the Bench; one, 
Louis D. Brandeis, is now serving on the United States 
Supreme Court. Our co-religionists, Simon Bamberger, 
was chosen Governor of the State of Utah, and Morris 
Alexander, of Idaho. When Washington was a terri- 
tory, Edward S. Salomon, a Brigadier General of the 
Civil War, was appointed its governor. 

During the World War, President Wilson summoned 
distinguished Jews to his Council. 

Finally we might add the name of Samuel Gompers, 
who has been repeatedly chosen the head of the Ameri- 
can Federation of Labor. 

From these instances it is seen that in the United 
States faith is no ban to public office. The temptation 
of the weak in some continental lands to abandon their 
creed to obtain political or professional preferment does 
not exist here — at least in the same degree. Notwith- 
standing, we cannot blind our eyes to the fact that many, 




REAR ADMIRAL ADOLPH MARIX 



172 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



for all sorts of reasons, have drifted from the Syna- 
gogue to which reference has already been made. Living 
no longer aloof in Ghettos, either by compulsion or 
choice, Jews are thrown in ever closer association with 
their Gentile neighbors. Intermarriage is alarmingly 
on the increase. Some have affiliated with the Christian 
Science Church seeking it first as a fancied remedy for 
bodily illness and remaining in it because it appears to 
make some mystical appeal to their emotions. Others 
again (and many of these will be found among the 
manual working class) join radical groups and deliber- 
ately reject the established religions altogether. Be- 
tween these on the one hand and the strictly observant 
on the other will be found many who are held to Juda- 
ism by a slender tie. 

In a survey of this situation it should be realized that 
it is harder for a Jew to live a Jewish life in an environ- 
ment foreign to his faith, than for the Gentile majority 
to conform to their respective Christian denominations, 
since American custom is naturally adjusted to the social 
and economic needs of the overwhelming majority;) 
hence, the selection of Sunday as the weekly day of rest. 

Average man moves on the line of least resistance. 
The Jew to live as a Jew, must flow against the tide. 
The difficulty of his status as man and Jew has been 
complicated, further, by general hostility, partly due to 
his persistent distinctiveness and his refusal to lose his 
individuality among the peoples about him. For eman- 
cipation, while it brought Jew and Gentile closer to- 
gether, the contact also brought with it certain social 
repulsions, product of old prejudice and new rivalry, 
that it will require the discipline of broadening culture 
to dispel. Meanwhile, this ill will has finally focussed 



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173 



into an anti-Jewish movement that we will now con- 
sider. 

Anti-Semitism. 

In its attitude of hostility, Roumania had taken her 
cue not so much from Russia as from Germany. For, 
although by 1870, Germany had theoretically wiped out 
all restrictive legislation against Jews, laws had changed 
faster than feeling. In 1878 there arose a movement 
styled anti-Semitism, very similar in its venom to the 
Teutomania that followed Napoleon's fall. This treat- 
ment subtly implied that the Jew belonged to a foreign 
alien group. The mediaeval "hep, hep" had been raised 
against the Jew's religion; Teutomania was a crusade 
against him as a nationality ; anti-Semitism discriminat- 
ed against his race. Sceptical Germany shifted the 
grounds of complaint from Christian against Jew to 
Aryan against Semite. 

Anti-Semitism included in its program the re-endorse- 
ment of many old charges and slanders against the Jews 
and while at first but an attitude of ill will, it grew into 
a distinct political party. 

Bismarck had made use of the "Liberals" to obtain a 
united Germany. That attained, he threw them over for 
the Conservatives. By utilizing the anti-Semitic wave, 
he was able to discredit the Liberals, since Jews largely 
belonged to that party and its leader, Eduard Lasker, 
was a Jew. Feeling and ill-feeling ran high, at times 
reaching the stage of anti-Jewish riots and boycotts. 
The anti-Semites persisted in seeking through legislation 
to drive Jews from public posts and to prevent their 
immigration. They were base enough to revive the 
Blood Accusation, though clever enough to know it a 



174 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



slander. The movement spread to Hungary and Aus- 
tria. Later it reached France and found expression 
there in anti- Jewish books and journals. 

The persecution of Alfred Dreyfus falsely charged 
with treason, had a strong anti-Semitic foundation. His 
solitary confinement in a cage on Devil's Island, Guiana, 
from 1895-1899 stirred the whole civilized world. Our 
co-religionist Joseph H. Reinach, editor, scientist, author 
and statesman was the first and most insistent advocate 
of his innocence. Other eminent defenders were the 
novelist Emile Zola and Colonel Picquart. Largely 
through their efforts, Dreyfus was not only pardoned, 
but vindicated and restored to all his military honors. 

In dissecting anti-Semitism, we usually find a mix- 
ture of three elements, reactionary monorchism as 
against democratic liberalism of the Jew : clericalism, as 
against rationalism, likewise advocated by the Jew; 
thirdly, mil it ar is m, as against Jewish peace ideals. 

Many of the anti-Semitic charges are childish and 
must tax the credulity even of the most prejudiced. At 
times they depict the Jews in conspiracy against the 
human race. Yet the influence of anti-Semitism on the 
Jews has been in some respects salutary. It has roused 
the lethargic and indifferent and deepened the feeling of 
mutual responsibility. 

Slander against the Jews reached its climax in the 
Twentieth Century in the deliberate fabrication of a 
story that the Jews had ever been and were still, in a 
conspiracy to overthrow Christendom; that they have 
been the secret cause of all revolutions and were 
planning through a mysterious organization known as 
the "Elders of Zion" to dominate the world. To sub- 
stantiate this wicked charge these enemies of Israel 



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175 



forged a document which they called the "proceedings" 
of this Jewish body and then claimed that they had ac- 
cidentally discovered it. This abortive calumny was first 
launched in Russia and used to divert the discontent of 
the masses from the autocratic government, to the Jew, — 
the perpetual scapegoat of the world's woes. Its publi- 
cation led to many Jewish pogroms in Russia. This 
literary forgery was then translated and carried to Ger- 
many. It was then turned into English; but as it con- 
tained many attacks against Britain, these were care- 
fully removed. In this form it w T as circulated in Eng- 
land and America under the title "The World's Un- 
rest." A Jewish scholar, Lucien Wolf, exposed the 
entire fabrication and "The Times," the leading English 
journal, finally repudiated the charge. But still, periodi- 
cals are issued in many lands containing excerpts from 
this wicked and false charge, with the sole object of 
bringing discredit on the Jew and fomenting ill-will 
against him. 

This situation has brought despair to some, but is a 
stimulus to others. This logically brings us to the con- 
sideration of a movement that has received the name 
of Zionism. 

Zionism. 

A recrudescence of prejudice and persecution at the 
close of the 19th century finding expression in anti- 
Semitism, anti-alien legislation, pogroms and expulsions, 
has shifted Jewish population from eastern Europe to 
more western centers. But at the same time throwing 
the Jew back upon himself, it has deepened the Jewish 
consciousness and sense of responsibility. 

On some it has had the further effect of reawakening 



176 



MODERN JEV ISH HISTORY 



a Jewish national sentiment and strengthening Jewish 
racial individuality. This state of mind has crystallized 
under the name of Zionism. This was at first a move- 
ment launched by Theodor Herzl, an Austrian littera- 
teur, to establish a Jewish State in Israel's old home, 
Zion, by the friendly aid of the Great Powers. These 
ideas were embodied in a book entitled 4< Juden-Staat" 
issued in 1896, proposing that Palestine, or at least that 
part of it once known, as Judea, should become a legally 
assured home, as a haven for the oppressed in despotic 
lands. But furthermore, the expectation was voiced that 
it might become the voluntary home of many Jews dis- 
satisfied with their status in liberal lands, and who felt 
an awakening of a national sense of Jews, stimulated 
by the revival of national feeling for independence by 
many subject races in recent years in different parts of 
the world. 

But long before the days of Theodor Herzl the desire 
for a Jewish State in Palestine found many exponents 
early in the 19th century even among the Gentiles, as a ro- 
mantic idea, from Hollingsworth and Laurence Oliphant 
to George Eliot and Hall Caine. Among the Jew T s — these 
that fostered those aims called themselves Chovevi-Zion 
(Lovers of Zion) the chief of these being Moses Hess. 

This movement might be called the advance herald 
fostering the national idea and promoting Jewish col- 
onization, in the Holy Land. This was further en- 
couraged by the historian Graetz and by the poet Emma 
Lazarus. Quite a literature grew around it. The actual 
founding of Colonization Societies as the next step in 
the movement, took practical effect as early as 1874. 

It is important to distinguish between Israel's restora- 
tion to the Holy Land through the providence of God,— 



THEODOR HERZL 



178 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



under the leadership of a Messiah King of the House of 
David, — a doctrine of Orthodox Judaism, and the Zion- 
ist project, which is a political and secular undertaking 
entirely distinct from the traditional beliefs of the Syn- 
agogue. Indeed, it was opposed by some Orthodox 
Jews (such as the Chief Rabbi Herman Adler and 
Lucien Wolf of England), who believed in the restora- 
tion only in a divine and miraculous way. At the same 
time, Zionism ,has been supported by some Reform 
Jews who had given up the Orthodox doctrine of a 
belief in a personal Messiah. Furthermore the movement 
is espoused by many who do not believe in Jewish 
nationalism, yet sympathetically and appreciatively en- 
courage the development of the movement as a won- 
drous experiment in national revival. 

But, on the whole, the movement at first met with in- 
tense opposition. For the most part from liberal Jews 
such as Claude Montefiore of England, scholar and phil- 
anthropist, and Dr. Kaufman Kohler, here, President 
of the Hebrew Union College. 

So the line of cleavage is not only between Orthodox 
and Reform, but for the moment more intensely perhaps 
between Nationalists and anti-Nationalists. The latter, 
who are non-Zionists, accept only the nationalism of 
their respective fatherlands and claim to be Jews by re- 
ligion. They recognize vividly the sentimental tie unit- 
ing them with their co-religionists, intensified by his- 
toric background and fifteen centuries of persecution. 
They differentiate between a Jewish race which they 
question, and the perpetuation of a Jewish type created 
through centures of segregation. 

But the movement has rapidly grown in the teeth of 
much antagonism and has gradually won the adherence 



THE UNITED STATES 



179 



of many who at first opposed it. It is remarkable the 
enthusiasm it has awakened ampng its increasing vo- 
taries and the appeal it has made to many skeptics who 
had fallen out of touch with the Synagogue. Among 
these we may specially mention one of its leaders, Max 
Nordau, the litterateur. 

To those unimpressed by its national aspect it makes 
appeal as a cultural movement. For it has revived 
Hebrew as a spoken tongue and has cultivated a knowl- 
edge of Jewish history and literature through its publi- 
cation of books and pamphlets. Its further encourage- 
ment of Jewish art and folk customs has tended to 
strengthen Jewish individuality and has given new 
confidence to some of our brethren frankly to assert 
their Jewish affiliation, where before the tendency had 
been rather to keep it shrinkingly in the background. 

The first Zionist Congress was called in 1897 in Basle. 
Such congresses met annually in some European city 
and the attendance grew successively larger. The move- 
ment has branches all over the world and vast sums have 
been raised for Palestinian restoration. It is divided 
into separate groups according to different interpreta- 
tions of its purpose. On the extreme right there are 
the Mizrachi (Oriental), those who make the acceptance 
of Orthodox Judaism a sine-qua non of their adherence, 
on the extreme left the Poele Zion (Zionist workers), 
made up of radicals in the labor group, who would 
entirely dissever religion from Zionism. But while there 
are some Zionists then who do not observe Judaism, 
concerned with the people and not with the faith, — on the 
whole, it must be said that the tendency of the move- 
ment has been to bring many to the Synagogue and 
estrange none from it. Whatever our views, we cannot 



180 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



but be impressed by the idealism of those who for the 
love of the land of their fathers, are ready to settle in a 
country not rich in resources, at best, and wasted by 
centuries of Turkish neglect, when on the ground of 
mere material interest the United States, South Ameri- 
ca or the English Colonies are more alluring and offer 
fuller opportunity for worldly success. 

The rapid march of events in the world at large has 
given a new aspect to the Zionist situation. This will 
be considered in the next, the closing chapters. 

Notes and References: 

Emma Lazarus: 

Her Jewish poems have been separately issued by the 
"American Hebrew," in a volume called "Songs of a 
Semite." She translated some poems of Heine, one 
of which is quoted in this volume. 

The following verses not only illustrate the genius of 
our poet, but also show what has been done for the 
Russian emigrant in America. 

"Since that day till now our life is one unbroken 
paradise We live a true brotherly life. Every 
evening after supper we take a seat under the 
mighty oak and sing our songs." Extract from a 
letter of a Russian refugee in Texas. 

The hounded stag that" has escaped the pack, 
And pants at ease within a thick-leaved dell ; 

The unimprisoned bird that finds the track 

Through sun-bathed space, to where his fellows dwell ; 

The martyr, granted respite from the rack, 

The death-doomed victim, pardoned from his cell. — 

Such only know the joy these exiles gain, — 

Life's sharpest rapture is surcease from pain. 

Strange faces theirs, where through the Orient sun 
Gleams from the eyes and glows athwart the skin. 

Grave lines of studious thought and purpose run 

From curl-crowned forehead to dark-bearded chin. 



THE UNITED STATES 



181 



And over all the seal is stamped thereon 
Of anguish branded by a world of sin, 
In fire and blood through ages on their name, 
Their seal of glory and the Gentile's shame. 

Freedom to love the law that Moses brought, 

To sing the songs of David, and to think 
The thoughts Gabirol to Spinoza taught, 
Freedom to dig the common earth, to drink 
The universal air — for this they sought 

Refuge o'er wave and continent, to link 
Egypt with Texas in their mystic chain, 
And truth's perpetual lamp forbid to wane. 

Hark ! through the quiet evening air, their song 

Floats forth with wild, sweet rhythm and glad refrain. 

They sing the conquest of the spirit strong, 
The soul that wrests the victory from pain ; 

The noble joys of manhood that belong 

To comrades and to brothers. In their strain 

Rustle of palms and Eastern streams one hears, 

And the broad prairie melts in mist of tears. 

Baron de Hirsch : 

The story of American Jewish philanthropy would not 
be complete without a record of the benefactions of 
Baron de Hirsch (born in Munich, 1831, died in Hun- 
gary, 1896), one of the greatest financiers of Europe. 
In 1873 he gave to the Alliance Israelite Universelle one 
million francs for the establishment of Jewish schools in 
the Orient for general education, and a yet larger 
amount for trade schools and for Alliance work gen- 
erally. Russia having refused his offer of a large grant 
to aid its Jewish subjects within the land itself, he de- 
cided to help them by emigration from it. He therefore 
established under English laws, the Jewish Colonization 
Association, placing £2,000,000 at its disposal. At his 
death he left it $45,000,000. After sending his agents 
all over the world, he chose Argentina as the most suit- 
able land for agricultural colonies for emigrant Rus- 



182 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



sian Jews. Largely because of these colonies there are 
75,000 Jews in Argentina to-day. 

To aid emigrants in the United States, he established 
in New York the Baron de Hirsch Fund with a capital 
of $2,500,000. Its benefits include aid in furthering 
transportation within America; education in the lan- 
guage of the country ; the establishment of trade schools, 
and the institution of an agricultural colony in Wood- 
bine, N. J. This developed into a Jewish town. This 
fund also assists the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial 
Aid Society, which . enables some Jews to buy farms 
and others to settle in less crowded parts of the 
country. 

In 1891 he established under the Austrian govern- 
ment an organization which he subsidized with twelve 
million francs for the improvement of the condition of 
the Jews of Galicia by the establishment of elementary, 
handicraft, agricultural, professional, commercial and 
technical schools ; also for needed support both of pupils 
and teachers. 

His varied benefactions far exceed $100,000,000. 

His wife, Baroness Clara de Hirsch, not only fol- 
lowed but also inspired many of his benefactions. At 
his death she augmented with her own fortune most of 
his philanthropic foundations. Her gifts were as widely 
international. In New York she established a Home for 
Working Girls. She gave and willed to benevolent 
causes $25,000,000. 

(See Jews in Many Lands, Elkan Adler. J. P. S. A. 
"A Visit to Moiseville.") 

Adolph Sutro, b. 1830, gave his immense estate for a 
park to the city of 'San Francisco, of which he was 
mayor. 

Jews in Agriculture : 

What Baron de Hirsch was to the Argentina Colony, 
Baron Edmund de Rothschild was in a smaller measure 
to the Palestinian Colonies. The Jewish Colonization As- 
sociation aided both. Other agricultural colonies have 
been established in South Dakota, Louisiana, Oregon, 




BARON MAURICE DE HIRSCH 



184 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Connecticut, New York and New Jersey, aided by differ- 
ent Jewish Agricultural Societies. In this connection 
there has also been established by Dr. Joseph Krauskopf, 
the National Farm School at Doylestown, Pa. There also 
exists Jewish Farmers' Asociations. 

A monthly, "The Jewish Farmer", in Yiddish and 
English, on the lines of advanced agricultural publications 
is published in New York. 

( See Jews in Argentina, Article u Jews in Latin Amer- 
ica/' Amer. Jezvish Year Book, 5678, p. 44.) 

Zionism : 

See volumes on this subject by Prof. Richard Gottheil 
and Horace Kallen. 

Territorialism : 

As a mere refuge for oppressed Jews in a legally as- 
sured home, Argentina, East Africa and Mesopotamia 
have been severally considered. With such hope in view 
Israel Zangwill has fathered a movement that he calls 
Territorialism — that is, any territory granting to the 
Jews political autonomy. 

Penina Moise : American Jezvish Year Book, 5666. 

Solomon Schechter : American Jewish Year Book, 
5677. ; 

Jewish Americanization Agencies — Charles S. Bern- 
heimer, Am. J. Year Book, vol. 23. 

America and the Jew. 

When Russian consuls refused to vise the passports 
of American Jews, who wished to visit Russia, the 
United States Government abrogated its treaty with 
Russia, which had continued in force since 1832. For 
it was regarded as an infringement of their rights, not 
as Jews, but as Americans. (American Jewish Year 
Book, Vols. 5670, 5672.) The United States, at a much 
earlier day, had intervened to obtain better treatment 
for the Jews of Morocco. Her pleas on behalf of Jews 
in Switzerland and in Roumania, have already been 
mentioned. 



THE WORLD WAR 



185 



Themes for Discussion : 

a. Contrast bigotry against the Jews in the Middle 
Ages with Anti-Semitism of modern' times. 

b. Show how American democracy has influenced 
the Synagogue. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE WORLD WAR. 

In July, 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne was 
assassinated by a Servian. Relations between those two 
nations had long been strained. Austria, one of the great 
powers, sent a threatening ultimatum to Servia, includ- 
ing certain drastic demands. Because Servia did not 
unconditionally accept them all, though she subscribed 
to most of the terms, Austria immediately declared war 
against her. 

There were many complications involved in this dec- 
laration of war that affected most of the European 
nations and perforce drew them into it. The consensus 
of opinion was that Germany rather utilized the occa- 
sion as an opportunity for a war for territorial expan- 
sion, for which, with her wonderfully equipped military 
organization, she was splendidly prepared. She certainly 
waived aside proposals for an amicable understanding 
made by some of the other Powers. Germany at once 
espoused the cause of Austria and later persuaded Tur- 
key and Bulgaria to follow her. Russia, on the other 
hand, immediately supported Servia and was followed 
by France. When Germany, in violation of an earlier 
compact, invaded Belgium to reach France more easily, 
England entered the war on the Servian side and was 



186 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



later joined by Italy. Japan and Portugal. This group 
of nations came to be known as the Allies or Entente, 
while the Austrian group were known as the Teutonic 
or Central Powers. 

The war was waged with a savagery and a colossal 
destruction of life and property such as has never been 
witnessed in the experience of mankind. Xew devices 
of destruction were called into requisition, unknown in 
previous conflicts, the most abortive of these being poison 
gas. Unarmed towns were bombed from the air by aero- 
planes and merchant ships were sunk at sea by submarines. 
Mighty fleets engaged in battle on the Atlantic and 
Pacific Oceans. Advancing armies carried devastation 
over Belgium and Northern France, over Russia and 
Poland, in Europe : and, throughout Armenia in Asia. 
The war reached the German colonies in China, the 
English and French colonies in Africa, and later came 
to include the Holy Land. 

The United States long remained neutral. But her 
own freedom of action becoming involved, and feeling 
further that the liberties of small nations were in jeop- 
ardy, she entered the war in 1917 on the side of the 
Allies, to defeat the German powers. 

Jewish Participance. 

The Jews of all lands enrolled in the ranks of their 
respective fatherlands, emulating their fellow country- 
men in deeds of patriotic fervor and heroic sacrifice. 
The participating countries utilized existing philan- 
thropic organizations for promoting the religious and 
social welfare as well as fostering the morale of the 
soldiers in the training camps and on fields of battle. An 
association of this character formed bv the American 



THE WORLD WAR 



187 



Jews was known as the Jewish Welfare Board for 
Soldiers and Sailors. It pressed into service every Jew- 
ish community throughout the land, and collected vast 
sums to further the comfort of the brethren in the ranks. 
It trained men and women and sent them to the camps 
here and abroad to minister to the needs of the army. 
Colonel Harry Cutler was its president until his death. 
Special prayer books and abridged Bibles were prepared 
for the men in the camps and at the front. 

It would be impossible to give in detail the record of 
Jewish soldiers who won distinction in the war. The 
reader is referred to articles on that subject for which 
reference is given in the notes at the end of this chapter. 
In the French estimate it is said that some 22,000 co- 
religionists lost their lives. The English casualties are 
estimated at 8,675; 1,105 received decorations and 
honors, and five were given the Victoria Cross. The 
gifted Jewish poetess, Alice Lucas, voiced these lines : 

"For the Jew has heart and hand, our Mother England, 
And they both are thine today — - 

Thine for life and thine for death — yea, thine forever ! 
Wilt thou take them as we give them, freely, gladly ? 
England, say!" 

Some 200,000 to 225,000 Jews were in the American 
service, meaning four to five per cent of the United 
States forces. Jews exceeded their quota by at least 
one-third of America's four million men. There were 
nearly 40,000 Jewish volunteers ; nearly 800 citations for 
valor by the United States and her Allies; of the 78 
who received the Congressional Medal of Honor, three 
were Jews. 130 Jews received the Distinguished Ser- 
vice Order; two won the French Medaille Militaire; 
174 received the Croix de Guerre. 



188 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



There were nearly 10,000 Jewish commissioned offi- 
cers in the several branches of the service. There were 
15,000 to 18,000 Jewish casualties, of whom 3,500 made 
the "supreme sacrifice. " 

The article in the American Jewish Year Book, to 
which reference is made in the notes, cites thrilling in- 
stances of daring. We can here report but two : the 
first, that of Sergeant Sidney G. Gomperts, who, "when 
his line was held up by machine guns, left his platoon 
and started with two soldiers through a heavy barrage. 
His companions killed, he continued in the face of direct 
fire, jumped into the machine gun nest, silenced the gun 
and captured nine of the crew." 

Another, William Sawelson, hearing a wounded man 
calling for water, left his own shelter, crawled through 
machine gun fire to give the man water from his own 
canteen. He returned to his own shell hole to obtain 
additional water, when he was killed. 

So far, we have no complete statement of the Jewish 
participance in the armies of the Teutonic powers. In- 
formation, however, has reached us that about 100,000 
(16 per cent) German Jews participated in the war for the 
Fatherland. Of these, 80 per cent were in active service 
at the front. 12,000 were killed, 35,000 decorated, and 
3,000 became officers. 

Jewish Suffering in the War. 

The bulk of the Jews residing in Eastern Europe in 
Russia and Austrian Poland were among the greatest 
sufferers. Their homes were repeatedly devastated by 
the advance and retreat of armies in the ebb and flow 
of battle. To the hostilities of the enemy in each case 
was added the old animosity against the Jew. Military 



THE WORLD WAR 



189 



slander further augmented their sufferings. Millions 
became destitute, thousands perished from privation and 
exposure and also by wanton massacre. 

The munificence of their brethren in England and 
other lands did*much to mitigate the suffering. Jewish 
relief committees were organized on a vast scale all over 
the world. Doctors and nurses were sent abroad to- 
gether with food, medicines and clothing. Through 
these humane agencies, thousands of lives have been 
saved. Never in the chronicles of Jewry have such enor- 
mous sums been voluntarily contributed for philan- 
thropy. American Jewry raised over fifty million 
dollars. They established centers for their distri- 
bution, sending men and women of training and exper- 
ience so that money and gifts contributed could be dis- 
pensed in the best way. About forty such centers in 
three different continents were established for the distri- 
bution of these funds. 

This relief had to be continued long after the war for 
the suffering outlasted the conflict that caused it. In 
addition to immediate succor and relief, the work of re- 
construction and reclamation had to be undertaken to re- 
establish the communities and place the ruined people 
on their feet so that they might begin the struggle of 
life once more. Nor did the animosities die down with 
the declaration of the Armistice in 1918 or with the 
signing of the Treaties of Peace in 1919. Civil war 
broke out in Russia after the overthrow of the mon- 
archy and between Russia and Poland after the latter 
had been made an independent nation. 

The provisional Government that overthrew the Rus- 
sian autocracy in 1917 was in turn overthrown by a 
radical group, which imposed on the land a Communis- 



190 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



tic Government involving a common ownership of all 
property. The party that seized the reins of power 
was known as the Bolsheviki. It intimidated its op- 
ponents by terrorism. Although but few Jews were 
among its promoters, all Jews were charged as its 
founders. Armies of reactionary leaders who tried to 
restore the Imperial Government were led by Petlura, 
Denikin, Balakhovich and Kolchak. They directed their 
savage attack against the Jews of the Ukraine, i. e., 
Southern Russia, where the bulk of our brethren resided, 
on the theory that they were the instigators of the 
Soviet Government. This was but an evasion and an 
excuse for robbing the Jewish population, and to grati- 
fy the glut for destruction, of an inhuman soldiery. 
Some 150,000 were killed; about the same number died 
of their wounds and of epidemics, and about a million 
more were plundered. We go back to all the tragedies 
of the Dark Age and fail to find so cold-blooded and 
colossal a massacre. 

The attempt to make the Jew the scapegoat for the war 
and its miseries, and for some of its later tragic conse- 
quences was part of a new burst of antagonism against 
Israel that broke out in many places all over the world. 
Anti-Semitism was revived in Germany and Austria and 
in the hitherto tolerant Hungary, and it raged with a 
virulence more bitter than ever before. Poland marked 
its independence by immediately reviving the boycott 
and varied forms of persecution against the Jew. New 
slanders were now directed against long suffering Israel. 
Forgeries were deliberately fabricated, charging them 
with a secret conspiracy to dominate the world. All past 
revolutions were laid at their door. As already pointed 
out, this monstrous calumny started in Russia and by 



THE WORLD WAR 



191 



the name of the "Jewish Peril" swept through Europe 
and reached the United States. 

The New Map of 
Europe and Asia. 

The War's outcome has largely changed the geo- 
graphy of the Old World. To give in detail all the ter- 
ritorial changes and new boundaries defined in the 
treaties of peace would go beyond the province of this 
volume. It is important, however, that the general 
boundaries should be known. Broadly speaking, they 
are as follows : 

Germany returns Alsace and Lorraine to France from 
which it had been taken in the war of 1870; Schleswig 
is restored to Denmark. The African and Chinese col- 
onies 'are surrendered and Prussian Poland relinquished, 

Austria was the land most completely dismembered, 
for it was largely made up of separate principalities, in- 
habited by distinct races. The new Austria is little more 
than the capital of Vienna, and its immediate surround- 
ings, a territory about as large as the State of Maine. 
Hungary now becomes a separate country. Galicia is 
given up to the new Poland. 

A new land has been formed called Czechoslovakia, 
which consists of Bohemia, Moravia and parts of Silesia 
and Hungary, Another new country created by the 
Treaty of Peace is called Jugo-Slavia. It includes the 
former kingdoms of Servia and Montenegro, together 
with parts of seven of the old Austrian provinces, and 
with a bit of Bulgaria. It lies, for the most part, on the 
Eastern border of the Adriatic Sea. 

Roumania now includes Transylvania and Bukowina, 
taken from Austria-Hungary, and Bessarabia, from 
Russia. 



192 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Italy obtains the Trentino from Austria and some ad- 
jacent lands. 

Russia loses Finland. Lithuania, Latvia and Es- 
thonia. All of these become separate independent coun- 
tries. 

Poland, in the 18th century (see page 61) was par- 
titioned between Austria, Prussia and Russia. These 
severed parts are all now brought together again as a 
new country, and form an independent Polish nation. 

Greece acquires Thrace and some islands. 

Turkey was largely shorn of its European area in the 
Balkan War of 1912 and 1913. It has still further 
shrunken by the peace terms of the World War. Little 
is left of European Turkey and much placed under 
special administration. 

In Asiatic Turkey. Mesopotamia becomes an Arabian 
kingdom. Armenia is independent. Syria is placed 
under a French mandate and Palestine under an Eng- 
lish. 

Furthermore. Danzig is a free and international city. 
Fiume is an independent state. 

All of these political and geographical changes tre- 
mendously affect the status of the Tew. For example, 
the Tews in the territory transferred to Greece, may 
not receive as tolerant a treatment as had been granted 
them in Turkey from which it had been taken. The 
enlarged Roumania now includes in its inhabitants a 
number of our brethren that had lived under Russian 
rule. There is little choice between these two govern- 
ments in their attitude of ill will toward Israel. But al- 
though Roumania, since 1878 has evaded granting 
citizenship to its Jewish subjects, the latest news tells of 
rather a change of heart and gives hope for more toler- 



THE WORLD WAR 



193 



able conditions. Our brethren in Lithuania are well 
satisfied with the kindly treatment under its new gov- 
ernment. But we are most concerned with their status 
in the new Poland, for that is an area very densely 
populated by Jews. Those in Prussian Poland fPosen) 
and in Austrian Poland (Galicia) were more tolerantly 
treated than those in Russian Poland that represented 
the bulk. Xow the new Polish nation that includes 
them all has begun its independent regime with an at- 
titude deliberately hostile to the Jews. So grave were 
the complaints of persecution, that Mr. Lucien Wolf 
headed a commission sent out from England to investi- 
gate. The result of protests from many countries as 
consequence of the findings of this commission, has at 
last induced the Polish government to make life more 
tolerable for the Jews in its midst. It is now just 
beginning to realize that the active cooperation of this 
intelligent people would be of great value in its State 
councils. 

Palestine. 

But the most remarkable change for Israel is in 
Palestine. Just as soon as the English army under the 
leadership of General Allenby invaded this section of 
Turkish territory at the end of 1917. Great Britain 
issued an important state document through its 
minister of Foreign Affairs, Arthur Balfour. This 
pronouncement then declared that Great Britain looked 
with favor upon Palestine as a national home for the 
Jewish people, provided always that the rights of other 
peoples there resident would not be invaded and that 
the sacred places of all religions there located would be 
reverently safeguarded. 



THE WORLD WAR 



195 



It might be well at this juncture to review briefly the 
history of Palestine from the time when Israel first 
entered it as settlers. It was here that they developed 
as a unique nation. It was here that under the guidance 
of those spiritual geniuses, the prophets, they developed 
that exalted religion that later parented other great 
Faiths of the world. 

When David in 1048 r. c. e. took Jerusalem from the 
Jebusites it became the capital — the national center. 
When Solomon built the Temple there, it became a re- 
ligious center. Isaiah called it the Holy City. That 
title it has never since lost. Judah was overthrown by 
Babylon, 600 b. c. e v its Temple destroyed and its people 
transported. But after a brief exile of half a century 
they were invited to return to their ancestral home and 
rebuild their Temple, and continued to live successively 
under Persian and under Greek rule, though granted 
local autonomy. When the Greco-Syrians attempted to 
interfere with their religious freedom, they threw off 
the yoke under leadership of the Maccabees, and in the 
year 142 b. c. e., they re-established Judean indepen- 
dence; this continued for 79 years. In this period, the 
rabbi gradually superseded the priest, and the Law the 
Altar. 

Then, all-absorbing Rome stepped in and made Judea 
one of its tributaries. When their rule became intoler- 
able .the Jew made a daring attempt to free their be- 
loved land from foreign rule. 

But Rome was the world. The attempt therefore 
was foolhardy but it was magnificent! Defeated in the 
year 70 a. c. e., and their Temple burned, this indomit- 
able people resorted to the fortunes of war once more 



196 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



in the year 132. Here again they met defeat and the 
dispersion of the Jews through the world began. 

The Jewish Faith taught in the Academies of the dis- 
persion kept Israel a unit, and the hope of national res- 
toration became a doctrine of the Synagogue. Prayers 
for the rebuilding of Zion saturated the Prayer Book. 
Two great religions built on its Scriptures and inspired 
by its prophets, rose to power — Christianity in the West, 
Mohammedanism in .the East. Since the saviour of 
Christendom lived and died in Judea, and the prophet 
of Islam is said to have passed some time there, Pales- 
tine became a Holy Land for Christian and Mohamme- 
dan as well as for the Jew, and bitter wars, known as 
the Crusades were fought between these two creeds to 
win possession of its holy places. 

Although Jewish scholarship and the Jewish center of 
gravity moved steadily from the Orient to the Occi- 
dent, and the Academies of Spain succeeded those of 
Babylonia, yet they turned to Jerusalem in prayer and 
they looked toward it as an ideal. Jehuda Halevy made 
it the theme of his poems and he, like the philosopher 
Nachmanides, and many faithful sons of Israel since, 
attained their pious aim to end their days on the sacred 
soil. 

In the meantime, the Crusade wars that began in 
1099 continued on and off for some centuries with 
varied fortunes, though the Jews were often the vic- 
tims. Jerusalem was under Christian rule from 1099 to 
1187. Then, under the great Saladin, it became a Mos- 
lem city and with but the break of one year (1243) it 
has remained in Moslem hands almost to the present 
time. In 1517 Palestine was occupied by Ottoman 



GENERAL ALLENBY IN JERUSALEM 



198 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Turks, a different race, but of the same Moslem creed. 
They held it for 400 years right down to 1917. 

A few Jews have always lingered in this land of their 
fathers. We find Jewish weavers and dyers there in 
the Middle Ages. But settlers were few under the 
Turkish rule for this slothful government let it fall into 
neglect. Thus industries were discouraged and the soil 
of the land that once flowed with milk and honey, be- 
came arid and barren. As late as the year 1837 when 
Queen Victoria ascended the English throne, there were 
but 3,000 of our co-religionists in the Holy City. Since 
then they have filtered in slowly, but it was a poor 
colony supported by the bounty of their brethren abroad 
(The Chalukah). Some orange groves and vineyards 
were established through the generosity of Baron Ed- 
mund de Rothschild. Russian persecution brought an 
increase of numbers after 1881. In the year 1897 a rail- 
way was built from Jerusalem to Jaffa. 

Then the Zionist movement was launched and a vig- 
orous colonization set in. The cry was henceforth — 
Jerusalem, not a place for the old to die, but for the 
young to live; not charity, but self-support, their goal! 
The numbers of settlers rose rapidly from 30,000 in 1903 
to 50,000 in 1910. Throughout Palestine, before the 
war, there were 86,000 Jews. Schools and hospitals 
were opened, crafts cultivated, plantations extended and 
new methods of agriculture introduced. The planting 
of the eucalyptus tree changed a marshy into a healthy 
soil. Then came the World War that destroyed much of 
these early beginnings and made inroads in the ranks of 
its settlers. Finally, on that historic date, December 
10th, 1917, under the leadership of General Allenby, the 



HERBERT SAMUEL, HIGH COMMISSIONER OF PALESTINE 



200 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Allied army entered Jerusalem and the Holy Land 

passed from Turkish hands. 

When the British host, aided by the way, by the local 
Jewish battalions, finally made its triumphant entry into 
Jerusalem the following year, the promise to Israel was 
repeated. The activity of the Zionists in seeking the 
Holy Land as a legally assured home, largely influenced 
the British government in this humane decision. It took 
the earliest opportunity to fulfill its promise by appoint- 
ing Sir Herbert Samuel as the High Commissioner of 
Palestine. Verily, history was repeating itself. It re- 
calls the generous offer of king Cyrus of Persia when 
Palestine was included in its conquests, to exiled Israel, 
to settle once more in their old fatherland, and the ap- 
pointment of Nehemiah as Governor. That was about 

500 B. C. E. 

Another precedent for this action of the British 
Empire is found later on when Judea was a Roman 
Province and the Emperor Claudius appointed the Jew 
Agrippa as king. 

Many of our brethren are turning to the beloved home 
of their fathers. Stalwart young men and women 
called Chalutzim (pioneers) are leading the way and un- 
flinchingly facing the hardships involved in preparing 
for settlement a land made arid by three centuries of 
Turkish neglect. Some of the Palestinian Arabs, who 
far outnumber the Jews, secretly encouraged by enemies 
of Israel, are expressing alarm at their arrival. Clashes 
have here and there occurred. But they have naught to 
fear and much to hope from the advent of enterprising 
Jewish settlers, who are going to make the country 
more valuable for them and more desirable as a per- 
manent home. 



202 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Many American Jews are aiding the reclamation of 
Palestine by organizing companies for the financing of 
new industries. A Zionist fund for the same purpose 
is known as the Keren Hayesod. A Jewish university 
at Jerusalem is being planned, a technical school at 
Haifa, and an enlarged harbor at Jaffa. Furthermore, 
the railroad lines are being extended and an engineer- 
ing project planned of creating water-power to install 
electricity by damming the waters of the Jordan. 

Finally a provisional Constitution has been drawn up 
in London for Palestine, by the English Government. 
Its chief features are:— 

The appointment of a High Commissioner and Com- 
mander-in-Chief upon whom will be conferred the nec- 
essary powers for execution of normal duties associated 
with such office, and for giving effect to the provisions 
of the Mandate accepted by Great Britain, at the re- 
quest of the principal Allied Powers, for the general 
administration of the country, and the establishment 
of. a National Home for the Jewish people. He will 
also have authority to divide the country into districts 
for the convenience of administration, supervise the 
rights with regard to public lands, mines and minerals. 
Subject to the direction of the Secretary of State, the 
High Commissioner may appoint such public officers as 
he deems needful. For his assistance there will also be 
an Executive Council. There will be further constituted 
a Legislative Council, to establish ordinances, maintain 
peace, order and good government. No ordinance shall 
be passed which shall restrict complete freedom of con- 
science and the free exercise of all forms of worship, 
save insofar as is required for the maintenance of public 



204 MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 

order and morals, or which shall tend to discriminate 
in any way between the inhabitants of Palestine on the 
ground of race, religion or language. The Legislative 
Council will consist of twenty-five members, some 
elected and others nominated. One of the nominated 
members shall be a Moslem, one a Christian, and one a 
Jew. 

The Judiciary will consist of Magistrates' Courts, 
District Courts, Courts of Criminal Assize, Land Courts, 
a Supreme Court acting as Court of Appeals, and a 
Tribal Court. Furthermore, a Moslem Religious Court, 
a Jewish Religious Court, and a Christian Religious 
Court, with exclusive jurisdiction in matters relating to 
these respective creeds. 

All ordinances shall be published in English, Arabic 
and Hebrew. The three languages may be used in de- 
bates and discussions in the Legislative Council. 

The Rights of Minorities. 

The change of national boundaries — the new States 
called into being by the terms of peace, has made neces- 
sary for the safeguarding of the rights of individuals 
suddenly brought under new political regime, special 
regulations with regard to the rights of minorities. 
These have been expressly formulated in separate ar- 
ticles or treaties made with each separate state. The 
treaties were all signed in the year 1919. The earliest in 
June at Versailles. It may be interesting to record that 
among the thirty-three signatories are some of our co- 
religionists ; "Mr. Edward S. Montagu, one of the repre- 
sentatives of England; Mr. L. L. Klotz, representing 
France. The American statesmen who placed their sig- 
natures to these famous documents were President 



THE WORLD WAR 



205 



Woodrow Wilson, Robert Lansing, Henry White, E. M. 
House and Tasker H. Bliss. 

These proceedings safeguarding the rights of minor- 
ities are of vital concern to the Jew. We will therefore 
specify those articles from the treaties that most affect 
them. Turn first to the treaty with Poland : 

"Poland undertakes to assure full and complete pro- 
tection of life and liberty to all inhabitants of Poland 
without distinction of birth, nationality, language, 
race or religion. 

"All inhabitants of Poland shall be entitled to the 
free exercise, whether public or private, of any creed, 
religion or belief, whose practices are not inconsis- 
tent with public order or public morals. 

"Differences of religion, creed or confession shall 
not prejudice any Polish national in matters relating 
r.o the enjoyment of civil or political rights, as for in- 
stance admission to public employment, function and 
honors, or the exercise of professions and industries. 

"No restrictions shall be imposed on the free use by 
any Polish national of any language in private inter- 
course, in commerce, in religion, in the press or in 
publications of any kind, or at public meetings. 

"Notwithstanding any establishment by the Polish 
government of an official language, adequate facilities 
shall be given to Polish nationals of non-Polish speech 
for the use of their language, either orally or in writ- 
ing, before the courts. 

"Polish nationals who belong to racial, religious or 
linguistic minorities shall enjoy the same treatment 
and security in law and in fact as the other Polish 
nationals. In particular they shall have an equal 
right to establish, manage and control at their own 
expense charitable, religious, and social institutions, 
schools and other educational establishments, with the 
right to use their own language and to exercise their 
religion freely therein. 



206 MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 

"In towns and districts where there is a consider- 
able proportion of Polish nationals, belonging to racial, 
religious or linguistic minorities, these minorites shall 
be assured_an equitable share in the enjoyment and 
application of the sums which may be provided out 
of public funds under the State, municipal or other 
budget, for educational, religious or charitable pur- 
poses. 

"Jews shall not be compelled to perform any act 
which constitutes a violation of their Sabbath, nor 
shall they be placed under any disability by reason 
of their refusal to attend courts of law or to perform 
any legal business on their Sabbath. This provision, 
however, shall not exempt Jews from such obliga- 
tions as shall be imposed upon all other Polish citi- 
zens for the necessary purposes of military service, 
national defence or the preservation of public order." 

The terms are similar and worded in almost identical 
language in the treaties with Austria, Jugo-Slavia, 
Czecho-Slovakia, Bulgaria, Roumania and Turkey. We 
further read in these documents that each country agreed 
"that the stipulations in the foregoing Articles so far as 
they affect persons belonging to racial, religious or lin- 
guistic minorities, constitute obligations of international 
concern and shall be placed under the guarantee of the 
League of Nations. They shall not be modified with- 
out the assent of a majority of the Council of the 
League of Nations. The Allied and Associated Powers 
represented on the Council severally agree not to withhold 
their assent from any modification in these Articles which 
is in due form assented to by a majority of the Council 
of the League of Nations." 

This League of Nations, to which reference is here 
made, was part of the Treaty of Peace. Its ultimate 
purpose is by gradual disarmament to abolish war and 



THE WORLD WAR 



207 



encourage a union of all peoples; its further aims are 
the promotion of international commerce, for the im- 
provement of laboring classes, for the stamping out of 
contagious, disease and for the prevention of certain 
crimes imperilling the lives and welfare of women and 
children. Some forty odd nations are included in the 
League, but the United States has not yet entered. 

In spite of the terrible tragedies caused by the war, 
sad effect of which will continue through this present 
generation, — the war may result in salutary consequences 
some of which we are beginning to discern. Such are 
the disappearance of despotic monarchies and their re- 
placement by more liberal forms of government; fuller 
rights of subject peoples; removal of abuses from op- 
pressed peoples; the spread of democratic equality; the 
furtherance of emancipation of woman, particularly in 
the Orient; the more equable distribution of the pro- 
ducts of the earth, and the larger participance of the 
workman in the fruit of his toil ; less conventionality 
and more sincerity in morals ; more simplicity in re- 
ligious institutions and wider tolerance for any honest 
attitude of mind. 

We are witnessing the emergence of new social stand- 
ards of life. We are witnessing history in the making. 

All of these issues slowly unfolding, will profoundly 
affect the Jew. In this series of manuals, we have seen 
the significant part he has played in the world's affairs 
from remote antiquity to the present day. His work is 
not yet over, nor his mission completely fulfilled. Israel 
still lives, a beneficent potency in the world, and he has. 
yet an important contribution to make in furthering the 
aims of liberty, righteousness and peace, and bringing 



208 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



to realization his spiritual ideals, cherished by his 
prophets in a far off day. 

Notes and References : 

The Jewish Record in the World War: 

Vol. 21 — American Jewish Year Book. 

Participance of the Jews of France — page 31. 

The Story of British Jewry in the War — page 98. 

Jewish Battalions and the Palestinian Campaign- 
page 120. 

American Jews in the World War — page 141. 

The Peace Conference and the Rights of Minorities — 
Vol. 22, American Jewish Year Book. 

Jewish War Records compiled by Julian Leavitt for 
the American Jewish Committee. 

The Jeivs Contribution to Civilization, by Joseph 
Jacobs— A. J. P. S. 

Theme for Discussion : 

Did Judaism and Christianity do their share in seeking 
to prevent the World War ? 



APPENDIX 



THE JEWISH POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 

The following statistics have been taken from those compiled 
for the American Jewish Year Book edited by Harry Schneider- 
man, also from the English Year Book edited by Rev. Isidor 
Harris, M. A. They are almost in entire agreement ; in cases 
where the numbers differ, those of the American Jewish Year 
Book have been followed. In some instances, no record has been 
available of Jewish population since those taken before the War. 
But while some are as early as 1911, others are the tabulation 
of 1920: 

JEWISH POPULATION BY CONTINENTS 



CONTINENTS JEWISH POPULATION 

America : 3,498,325 

Europe 10,439,191 

Asia 434,332 

Africa 380,668 

Australasia 19,415 



Total 14,771,931 
JEWISH POPULATION BY COUNTRIES 



America 

countries 

Canada 75,681 

Cuba.. 2,000 

Jamaica 1,487 

Mexico 500 

United States 3,300,000 

Argentine Republic 110,000 

Brazil 6,100 

Dutch Guiana (Surinam) 882 

Curacao 600 

Peru : 300 

Uruguay 300 

Venezuela 475 

Europe 

Austria 200,000 

Belgium 16,000 

209 



210 MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 

Bulgaria 45,000 

Czechoslovakia . . 349,000 

Cyprus, Gibraltar, Malta • 1,445 

Denmark 5,950 

Finland 2,000 

France 150,000 

Germany . 500,000 

Greece 120,000 

Hungary 450,000 

Italy 43,000 

Luxemburg 1,270 

Netherlands .. 122,500 

Norway , 1,045 

Poland 3,069,330 

Portugal . 1,000 

Roumania 1,000,000 

Russia in Europe : 

Soviet Russia 200,000 

Esthonia 7,500 

Latvia 150,000 

Lithuania 250,000 

Ukraine 3,300,000 

Jueo Slavia 100,000 

Spain 4,000 

Sweden 6,400 

Switzerland 20,951 

Turkev in Europe 75,000 

United Kingdom . 286,500 



Asia 



Aden 3,747 

Afghanistan and Turkestan 18,316 

Dutch East Indies (Java, Madura, etc.) 10,842 

Hong Kong and Straits Settlement 685 

India 20,980 

Japan 1,000 

Palestine 85,000 

Persia m 40,000 

Russia in Asia .... • - 76,262 

Turkey in Asia (other than Palestine) 177,500 



Africa 

Abyssinia 25,000 

Algeria 70,271 

Egypt 59,581 

Morocco 103,712 

Tripoli 18,860 

Tunis 54,664 



APPENDIX 211 

E. African Protectorate 80 

Rhodesia 1,500 

Union of South Africa 47,000 

Australasia 

Australia 17,287 

New Zealand 2,128 

JEWISH POPULATION IX THE PRINCIPAL CITIES 
OF THE WORLD 

New York ' 1,500,000 

Philadelphia 175,000 

Chicago 250,000 

Montreal 50,000 

Buenos Ayres ? 100,000 

Salonica 80,000 

Lodz 150,000 

Warsaw 357,521 

Budapest 203,687 

Bucharest 43,274 

Vienna 175,318 

Frankfort 23,552 

Berlin 142,289 

Constantinople . • 65,000 

London 170,000 

Paris ^ 60,000 

Rome 10,000 

Jerusalem • 55,000 

Bombay 10,739 

Cairo 28,000 

Svdney .*... 6 A 500 



Berditchev has a Jewish population of 47,000. but the entire 
population of that town is 53,000, meaning 87^%. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES 



16th and 17th Centuries 



GERMAN STATES. 

1506-16, Reuchlin, defender of 
the Talmud. 

1517, Luther begins the Re- 
formation. 

1542, Jews banished from 
Prague. 

1541-1613, David Gans, astron- 
omer, associate of Kep- 
ler and Tycho de 
Brahe. 

1612, Jews admitted to Ham- 
burg. 

1614, Fettmilch riots. 
1618-48, Thirty Years' War. 
1670, Jews expelled from 
Vienna. 

1670, Jews admitted to the 
Mark of Brandenburg. 



HOLLAND 
and American Colonies 

1575, William of Orange made 
Governor of the Nether- 
lands. 

1593, Jews admitted into 
Amsterdam. 

1609, Spain acknowledges in- 
dependence of Holland. 

1604-57, Manasseh ben Israel. 

1623, Uriel Acosta excom- 
comunicated. 

1632-77, Baruch Spinoza, phil- 
osopher. 

1638, New Haven colony 
adopts the Mosaic 
legal code. 

1641, Colony of Massachu- 
setts adopts Criminal 
Code of the Bible. 

1642, Isaac Aboab and party 
settle in Brazil. 

1654, Jews migrate to New 
Amsterdam. 

1657, Jews readmitted to 
England. 

1657, Asser Levy obtains 
burgher rights. 

1657, Jews established in 
Newport, R. I. 

1664, J. under English rule 
in N. America. 

1680, First Congregation or- 
ganized in New York. 



ITALY 

1458-1549, Elias Levita, Hebrew 

Grammarian. 
1516, Venetian Ghetto. 
1555, Roman Ghetto. 
1514-78, Azarya dei Rossi, 

Scholar. 
1569-93, Jews admitted to Papal 

states and expelled 

again. 

1650, flourished the critics, 
Leo di Modena, Joseph 
de Medigo. 

1590-1663, Simon Luzzatto, lit- 
terateur. 

TURKEY AND THE 
ORIENT. 

1520-72, Moses Isserles, re- 
edited Shulchan Aruch. 

1520-1602, Solomon Ashkenazi, 
Statesman. 

1534-72, Isaac Lurya, Kabba- 
list. 

1554, Karo's Shulchan Aruch. 
1566, Joseph Nasi, Duke of 
Naxos. 

1665, Sabbathai Zevi pro- 
claimed "Messiah." 



POLAND 

15Q5-4&, Sigismund I; restored 
old Jewish Privileges. 

1520-1602, Solomon^ Ashkenazi, 
Court physician in Po- 
land. 

1572, End of Jagellon dyn- 
asty. 

1533-94, Abraham Troki. 
"Faith Strengthened" 
refutes Christian theol- 
ogy. 

1586, Vaad _of the Four 
Countries. 

1613, Beginning of Roman- 
off rule (Russia) ; 

1636-7, Blood Accusations. 

1648-58, _ Cossack Persecu- 
tions. 

1659, Lithuania united to Po- 
land. 

1683-1725, Peter the Great 
(Russia). 



212 



Eighteenth Century 



UNITED STATES 

1776-1854, Judah Touro, Phil- 
anthropist. 

1781-1868, Rebecca Gratz es- 
tablished first Sabbath 
school. 

1785-1851, Mordecai M. Noah, 
publicist, statesman. 

1792- 1862, Uriah P. Levy, 

commodore. 

1793- 1870, Levy M. Harby, 

captain. 

1787, Constitution decides 
public office without 
religious test. 



FRANCE 

1784, France abolishes poll- 
tax, permits J. resi- 
d e n c e throughout 
France. 

1789. Mirabeau and _ Abbe 
Gregoire write in ad- 
vocacy of Jews. 

1791, National Assembly 
grants civil rights to 
Jews. 



RUSSIA AND POLAND 

1750, Chassidim, Sect found- 
ed by Is. Baal Shem. 

1720-97, Elijah Wilna, Gaon. 

1772, 1st Partition of Poland. 

1791, Pale of Settlement in- 
stituted by Catherine 
II. 

1793, 2d Partition of Poland. 

1795, 3d Partition of Poland. 

1796-1801, Paul _ 1st grants 
Jewish Citizenship in 
Courland: forbids Jew- 
ish Expulsion from 
towns. 



GERMANY 

1728-86, Moses Mendelssohn. 
1725-1805, N. H. Wessely. 
1743-1812, Mayer A m s c h e 1 

Rothschild. 
1754-1800, Solomon Maimon, 

Kantian Philosopher. 
1780, Lessing and Dohra 

plead for Jewish rights. 
1780, Joseph II, Austria, 

ameliorates Jewish 

Status. 

1747-1803, Dr. Marcus Herz. 
1764-1847, Henrietta Herz. 
1771-1833, Rachel Levin. 
1784-90, "The Meassefim," 

School of Hebrew 

writers. 
1794-1886, Leopold Zunz, father 

of science of Judaism. 



ENGLISH 

1729, First synagogue built 
in New York. 

1733, J. Settlement in Sa- 
vannah. 

1740, J. admitted to Nat- 
uralization in Ameri- 
can Colonies. 

1756, Dr. Jacob Lombroso 
comes to Maryland. 

1776-81, Struggle for Indepen- 
dence. 
Jewish Patriots: Fran- 
cis Salvador, Major 
Benjamin Nones, Es- 
ther and David Hays, 
Rabbi Gershom Seixas 
(1745-1816), Havm Salo- 
mon (1740-1785). 



ITALY 

1707-1747, Moses Chaim Luz- 
zatto, Poet and Drama- 
tist. 



213 



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214 



Twentieth Century 



UNITED STATES 

1900, Death of Isaac M. 
Wise. 

1905, Celebration 250th anni- 
versary Jewish settle- 
ment in North Ameri- 
ca. 

1916, L. D. Brandeis made 
Justice Supreme Court, 
U. S. 

1848-1919. Adolph Marix, Rear 
Admiral U. S. Navy. 

1917, Organization Jewish 
Welfare Board soldiers 
and sailors. 

1921, Albert D. Lasker made 
head of Shipping Board. 



FRANCE 

1906, Dreyfus vindicated. 

1907, State aid withdrawn 
from synagogue and 
church . 

1919, Henry L. Bergson 
made member of In- 
stitute of France. 



GERMANY 

1858-1919, Kurt Eisner, _ Pres . 
Bavarian. Republic. 

1922, W. Rathenau envoy of 
Germany to Genoa con- 
ference. Foreign Min- 
ister. 



ITALY 

1907, 1910, Ernesto Nathan. 
Mayor of Rome. 



BRITISH EMPIRE 

1905, Celebration 250th anni- 
versary of Whitehall 
Conference (to consider 
Jews' readmission) . 

1911, Opening Liberal Jew- 
ish Synagogue. 

1913, Sir Rufus Isaacs, Lord 
Chief Justice of Eng- 
land. 

1918, Earl Reading appointed 
Ambassador to U. S. 

1918, Conquest Palestine by 
British army. 

1920, San Remo Conference; 
confirms Balfour Dec- 
laration favoring Pal- 
estine as a Jewish 
" home-land. 

1920, Sir Herbert Samuel 
appointed High Com- 
missioner for Pales- 
tine. 

1921, Lord Reading appointed 
Viceroy of India. 



RUSSIA 

1903, KishinefT and Homel 
massacres . 

1905, Anti-Jewish pogroms 
throughout Russia. 

1905, Opening of Douma. 

1917, Overthrow of Roman- 
off dynasty. 

1917, Decree of Jewish 
emancipation. 



215 



INDEX 



(ill., illustration; port., portrait; Jews) 



Aaronson, Aaron, discoverer of 
wild wheat, 126. 

Aboab, Isaac de F., 36; note, 43. 

Acosta, Uriel, 45 ; rationalist, 52. 

Actors, Jewish, 126v 

Alexander II, liberates serfs, 65. 

Alexander 1 III, reactionary, 66. 

Alliance Israelite Universelle, 
120; Girls' school in Bagdad, 
ill., 161. 

America, Chapter X, 133. 
North America : earliest set- 
tlements, 134; first wave Seph- 
ardic, 155 ; Aaron Levy founds 
Aaronsburg, 136; Asser Levy, 
134 ; Aaron Lopez establishes 
colony at Leicester, 134; port., 
135 ; Puritan New England 
bigoted, 134; colonies adopt 
Mosaic laws, 134; first Syna- 
gogue in New York, 136 ; 
Maryland restrictive, 137 ; 
Canada, struggle for civil 
rights, 137; Touro, Judah, 137, 
139; port, 138; cemetery to 
Newport, 139 ; Revolutionary 
War, 140 ; Jewish patriots in, 
141; J. in America, note 152; 
(See "United States." 
South America: earliest settle- 
ments, 133 ; general character 
of, 148, 152; religious condi- 
tions, 150; Jamaica, 148; Ar- 
gentina, 149; Brazil, 149; 
Chili, 149; Paraguay, 150. 
Central America: Mexico, 
150; Cuba, West Indies, 151; 
Colombia, 150; Panama, 150; 
Curacao, 151 ; Porto Rico (U. 
S.), 151; St. Thomas (U. S.), 



151 ; Victims of Inquisition, 
note, 152. 

Amsterdam Synagogue interior, 
ill, 34. 

Amulets, note, 38. 

Anglo-Jewish Association, 120. 

Anti-Semitism, 173-5. 

Appreciation of J., see "Christ- 
ian." 

Art, Jews in, 126. 

Ashkenasi, Solomon, statesman, 

26 ; international power, 27. 
Azarya dei Rossi, broadminded 

scholar, 33. 

Baal Shem, Israel, founder of 
Chassidim, 59. 

Bakst, Leo, artist, 126. 

Balkan States, 118. 

Basnage, writes history of Ju- 
daism, 41. 

Benai Israel, note, 129. 

Bergson, Henrv, philosopher, 
125. 

Benjamin, Judah P., Senator, 

jurist, 147. 
Berlin Treaty, 118; John Hay 

on, 119. 

Bernays, Jacob, philologist, 96. 

Bible and Modern Life: 

Influence on the Reformation: 
first, from study of Hebrew 
Scriptures, 21 ; second, from 
Luther's translation, 17 ; In- 
fluence of liberalism and dem- 
ocracy of the Bible on Ameri- 
can struggle for independence, 
140; Darmesteter on "The 
Prophets", 101-3; Heine's ap- 
preciation of Mosaic Law, 85 ; 



217 



218 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Mendelssohn's translation re- 
vives knowledge of Bible, 75 ; 
Bible texts on Immortality, 
78 ; Bible and Reform Judaism : 
Spinoza's criticism prepares the 
way, 45 ; Zunz's criticism pre- 
pares the way, 96 ; Rationalis- 
tic interpretation, 97. 
Bloch, Jean de, peace advocate, 
126. 

Blood accusation in Damascus,. 

120, note, 120. 
Bloomfield, Brigadier, 143. 
Blumenberg, Brevet Brig. Gen., 

146. 

B nai Berith, I. O., 160. 
Boerne, Ludwig, a leader in lib- 
eralism, 122. 
Brandes, George, litterateur, 124. 
Brazil, 149. 
Bulgaria, 118 

Buxtorf, father and son, Hebrew 
scholars, 42. 

Canada, struggle for civil rights, 
137. \ 

Catherine II, Czarina. 64. 

Charities, Federation of, 160. 

Charity. American Jewish, 158. 

Chassidim, a lewish sect in Po- 
land, 59. 

Cbautauaua, Jewish, 158. 

Chinese Jews, note, 129; ill., 130. 

Christian appreciation of Jews: 
Basnage : Charles XI of Swe- 
den ; Delitzsch, Franz : George 
Eliot; Leroy Beaulieu ; Le 
Monde ; Macaulay ; Pere Hya- 
cinth ; Simon, Father ; Smol- 
lett, note, 41-2. 

Church and State, Separation of 
note, 153. 

Chwolson, Daniel, Orientalist, 
defends J., 65. 

Civil War, American, Jews in, 
146-7. 

Cohen, Dr. Mark, patriot, 147. 
Colonization Association, Jewish, 
note, 182. 



Conference, Central, of America*. 
Rabbis, 164. 

Conference. Pittsburgh, 100. 

Conferences, Rabbinic, reforms 
introduced, 100. 

Converts, 82; 89; note, 86; 
127 ; due to ignorance of Juda- 
ism, 89. 

Cossacks,' Conflict between J. 
and— 58. 

Court Jews, note, 21. 

Cremieux, Isaac Adolphe, 122 ; 
note, 128; port., 121; — and 
Emma Lazarus, 157; Secures 
abrogation of Jewish oath, 128. 

Cromwell. Oliver, favors return 
of Jews to England, 40. 

Crypto Jews, Lucien Wolf on, 
note, 43. 

Damascus, Blood Accusation, 122. 

Damascus Gate, At the, ill., 186. 

Danubian States, 118. 

Darmesteter, James, 101, on 
Prophets, 101-2. 

Delitzsch, Franz and Fried- 
rich, Hebrew scholars, 42. 

Dei Medigo, Joseph, rational- 
ist, 50. 

Denmark Emancipates Jews, 
115. 

Disraeli. Benjamin, Premier 
of England, 128. 

Divine Service of the Jews, 
Zunz on, 92. 

Dogmas, Mendelssohn on, 79. 

Dohm, writes on civil amel- 
ioration of conditions of 
the Jews, 76. 

Dramatists, Jewish, 51, 54. 

Dreyfus, Alfred, French pat- 
riot, 174. 

Education, American Jewish, 
166. 

Eibeschutz, Jonathan, mystic, 
35. 

Einhorn, David, reformer, 
100. 



INDEX 



219 



Einstein, Albert, scientist, 125. 

Eisenmenger, slanders J., 41. 

Elijah, Gaon, ablest Jewish 
scholar in Poland, 106. 

Emancipation, Intellectual, 
Chapter VIII, 89. 
—Political, Chap. IX, 107. 
— in European lands, 115-6. 

Emancipation's perils, 81. 

Encyclopedia, Jewish. 158. 

Ehrlich, Paul, medical discov- 
erer, 126. 

England; Anglo-Jewish As- 
sociation, 120. English Re- 
form, note, 104; Jews admit- 
ted to Parliament, Univer- 
sities and Peerage, 116; 
English Puritanism favor- 
able to Jews, 39; Montefiore, 
115; Puritans favorable to 
Jews, 39; note, 43; E. read- 
mits Jews,. 40; Visited by 
Manasseh ben Israel, 39. 

Europe, Change of map 
through World War, 191-3. 

Ealashas, Abvssinian Jews, note, 
129 • . 

Fettmilch riots, 18. 

Finance, Jew in, 123; Roths- 
child, 124. 

Flexner, Simon, medical dis- 
coverer, 126. 
- France: the Blood Accusa- 
tion, 120; Cremieux, 120; 
Jews in, 111; Louis Philip- 
pe, 94; Napoleon, 109; Nap- 
oleon, 109; Napoleon's 
downfall, 111; Revolution, 
107; note, 128; Second Rev- 
olution, 1830, 115; Sanhed- 
rin, 109-10; Second Repub- 
lic, 94; 

Frank, Jacobs adventurer, 32. 
Franks, David, patriot, 141. 
Frankfort, 113; Judengasse, 
ill, 112. 

Frankl, Zacharias, progress- 
ive Orthodox, 96. 



French Revolution, 107; — and 

the Jews, 108. 
Friedlander, David, ■ assimila- 

tionist, 81-2. 

Geiger. Abraham, 98; — and, 
Holdheim, reformers, note, 
104. 

George Eliot translates Zunz T s 
tribute to Jews, 93. 

Germany in Eighteenth Cen- 
tury as described by N. H. 
Wessely, 74-5; Jewish sta- 
tus in 17th century, 18; Na- 
poleon's downfall brings 
reaction, 111; Teutomania, 
113; 

Girls' school in Bagdad, ill. 
161. 

Gollancz, Sir Israel, litterateur, 
125. 

Gomez, Antonio di, playwright, 
51. 

Gratz, Rebecca, founds Sab- 
bath schools, 165. 

Graetz, Heinrich, History of the 
Jews, 96; note, 103. 

Greece emancipates Jews, 115. 



Hafkine, W., bacteriologist, 126. 

Harby, Captain, patriot, 147. 

Haskalah, see Humanists, 105. 

Hay, John, on Jews in Roum- 
ania, 119. 

Hays, Esther and David, pa- 
triots, 147. 

Hebrew Union College, for 
training of Rabbis, 164. 

Heine, Heinrich, 83; sonnet to 
his mother, 83 ; appreciation of 
Jews, 84; — and civil libertv, 
122. 

Herz, Henriette, opens salon, 81 
— , Marcus, scientist, 82. 

Herzl, Theodor, founder of 
Zionism, 176; port. 177. 

Hilfsverein der deutschen Jud- 

• en, 120. 



220 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Hirsch, Baron de, philanthrop- 
ist, note, 181-2; port, 183. — 
Baroness de, note, 182. 
— Fund, note, 184. 
— Samson Raphael, leader of 
Conservative Judaism, 106. 
— Samuel, reformer, 122. 

Historians, Jewish, 96; Graetz, 
96, note, 103; Jost, Kroch- 
mal, Rappaport, Munk, 96; 
Weiss, Steinschneider, note, 
103. 

Holdheim and Geiger, reform- 
ers, note, 104. 

Holland, Jews admitted into, 36; 
into New Amsterdam, 36. 

Humanism, 12-4. 

Humanists, Jewish, note, 104-5. 

Ignorance, a cause of Jewish 
disability, Zunz, 94). 

Immigration, German, 155; Rus- 
sian 162. 

Immortality, Mendelssohn's ar- 
guments for, 73 ; belief in 
this doctrine shown from 
Biblical and other texts, 78-9. 

Indifference, Jewish, 172. 

Isaacs, Sir Rufus, Earl Read- 
ing, U. S. Ambassador, India's 
Viceroy, 116; port. 117. 

Israel, Manasseh b., see Man- 
asseh. 

Italy : Italian Jewry in 16th cent., 
23 ; Mortara abduction, 99 ; 
removes Jewish disabilities, 
95 ; Roman and Venetian 
Ghettoes, 33. 

Itzig, Fannie, founds a literary 
salon, 81. 

Jacobsohn, Israel, early Re- 
former, 87. 

"Jerusalem" f Mendelssohn, 76 
79; Jews' Place of Wailing, 
ill. 196; Street scene in Jeru- 
salem, ill., 201. 

Jessel, Sir George, Judge, 136. 



Joseph II of Austria improves 

Jewish status, 76. 
Jost, History of the Jews, 96. 

Judaism, a legislation or a creed, 
79. 

Juedisch-Deutsch, 69. 

Kabala, mysticism, 30. 

Karo, Joseph, compiled Shul- 

chan Aruch, 28 ; — and Lur- 

ya, note, 33. 
Knefler, Brevet Major General, 

147. 

Krochmal, historian, 96. 

Ladino, dialect of Turkish Jews, 
69. 

Lasker, Eduard, leads liberal 
group in Germany, 122. 

Lazarus, Emma, poet, 155 ; 
note, 180; port., 156. 

Lee, Sir Sidney, litterateur, 124. 

League of Nations, 208. 

Leeser, Isaac, versatile scholar, 
163. 

Leon, David de, patriot, 146. 
Lessing and Mendelssohn, 71 ; 

and Nathan der Weise, 78. 
Levin, Rachel, convert, 83. 
Levita, Elias, Hebrew scholar, 

20. 

Levy, Aaron, founds Aarons- 
burg, 136. 

— Asser, first notable Jew in 
America, 134. 

— Commodore Uriah P., 143; 

port. 142. 
Liberalism and the Jews, 122. 
Literature, Jew in, 124-5 ; — 

American, 155-8. 
Lombroso, Jacob, physician, 136. 
Longfellow's poem on Newport 

Cemetery, 140. 
Lopez, Aaron early settler in 

Leicester, 134; port. 135. 
Luria, Isaac, mystic, 33. 
Luther, Martin, 15; friendly to 

Jews, 16: unfriendly to Jews, 

17; note, 21. 



INDEX 



221 



Luzzatto, Moses Chaim, poet, 
dramatist, 52. 
— Simon, litterateur, 23i. 

Maimon, Solomon, philosopher, 
disciple of Mendelssohn. 77; 
describes status of Polish 
Jewry, 77. 

Manasseh ben Israel, Chapter 
IV, 35 ; pro-Jewish argu- 
ments, mystical and commer- 
cial, for Jews' readmittance 
into England, 39 ; writes in 
defense of Jews, 38; port, 37. 

Maranos, secret Jews, 36. 

Marix, Adolph, Rear Admiral, 
port. 171. 

Marx, Karl, socialist, 123. 

Maskilim, intellectuals, 105. 

May Laws, Russian, 68. 

Meassefim, Hebrew writers, 75 ; 
Slouschz on, note, 105. 

Mendelssohn , Moses, Chapter 
VI, 71; Emancipator, 74; — 
and Lessing, 71 ; note, 78 ; — 
and Lavater, 73; contrasted 
with Maimon, 78; M's daugh- 
ters leave J. fold, 82; early 
struggles, 71 ; genius, 77 ; His 
German style, 72 ; "Jerusal- 
em", 76 ; — and Reform, 
85; translates Pentateuch and 
Psalms into German, 75 ; 
Views on Immortality, 73 ; 
port, 70. 

Mexican War, Jews in, 146. 

Michaelson, A. A. astronomer, 
125. 

Minorities, Rights of, in Peace 
terms (1921), 204-6. 

Modena, Leo, rationalist, 50. 

Moise, Penina, poet, 155. 

Montefiore, Moses, philanthrop- 
ist, 120; note, 128; port. 114. 

Montenegro, 118. 

Montesquieu pleads for Jews, 
76. 

Mortara abduction, 144. 
Mordecai, Major Alfred, 145. 



Munk, Salomon, historian, 120; 

128; note, 128. 
Musicians, Jewish, 126. 
Mysticism, 30; excesses of, 31. 



Napoleon, 109; downfall, 111; 
institutes Sanhedrin, 110; re- 
moves J. disabilities, 109. 

Nasi, Joseph, statesman, 26. 

Netherlands persecuted by Spain, 
wins independence, 35. 

New Amsterdam, 134. 

Newport, 136. 

—Cemetery, ill., 139 ; Longfel- 
low's poem on, 139-40. 

Nicholas Ilj Czar, 69. 

Noah, Mordecai M., writer, 
statesman, 145 ; port. 144. 

Nones, Major, patriot, 141. 

North America, Jewish Settle- 
ment in, 134. 

Nunez, Dr., Portuguese refu- 
gee, 134. 

Oath, Jewish, 95. 
Orthodoxy contrasted with Re- 
form, 96. 

Pale of Jewish Settlement in 
Russia before the World War, 
64; map. 

Palestine : 

History of, 193; taken by the 
English, 200; Balfour Declara- 
tion, 193 ; Allenby in Jerusa- 
lem, port., 197; Sir Herbert 
Samuel, High Commissioner, 
port., 199 ; Constitution of, 202. 

Paul I, Czar, 64. 

Peace, after the World War, 191. 

Peixotto, Benjamin F., consul 
to Roumania, 168. 

Persecution, by legislation, 18, 
77; by expulsion, 18, 19: by 
slander, 120, 129, 174, 189; by 
massacre, 68, 190; by bovcott,. 
190. 

Pfeffercorn, apostate, 13. 



222 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Philanthropy, American Jewish, 
158-62. 

Pittsburgh Conference, 100. 1 

Playwrights, Jewish, 126. 

Poland: 35; partition of, 61; 
Jewish life there, 56 ; status of 
Polish J. described by Maimon, 
77 ; Jewish rights in new Po- 
land, 206. 

Population, Jewish, of the World, 
209; of the U. S., 155; by 
States, map. 

Portugal invites Jewish settle- 
ment, 116. 

Post-Mendelssohn Era, Chapter 
VII, 81. • 

Prophets, Hebrew, Darmesteter 
on, 101-2. 

Proskauer, Adolph, patriot, 147. 

Protestantism, 2*1 ; — and liberal- 
ism, 22. 

Publication Societies, Jewish, 

166. 
Puritans, 39. 

Puritans of Old England and 
Xew England, a contrast, 134. 

Rappaport, historian, 96. 

Rathenau, YV., statesman, 126-7. 

Rationalists, Italian, 50. 

Reading, Earl, see Isaacs. 

Reform: Ceremonial, 87, 99; 
Conferences, reforms intro- 
duced bv 100 : Confirmation, 
87: English., note, 104; First 
Reformer, Israel Jacobson, 87; 
future life, 99 ; Geiger and 
Holdheim. 104; Its tendency, 
99 :_ —and Karaism, 104; 
Religious Reform negative, 
86 ; Ritual, 100 ; Second stage, 
96 ; Rationalism, 97 ; Theories 
as to Israel's dispersion, 98; 
as to Israel's Restoration, 98 ; 
as to the Messiah, 98; 
Woman's place in — , 99. 

Reformation, 15 ; — and Bible, 19 ; 
Froude on, note, 21 ; — and 
Jews, 17. 



Renaissance, 12; note, 22; — 
of Hebrew literature, note, 105. 

Reuchlin, John, Humanist, 14, 
note, 22. 

Revolutionary War, 140; Frances 
Salvador, Major Xones, Esther 
and David Hays, Gershom 
Seixas, 141. 

Reinach, J. H., scholar, 174. 

Reuter, international news agency 
125. 

Rhode Island, 136. 
Ricardo, David, economist, 122. 
, Riesser, Gabriel, emancipator, 
122; note, 122, 
Rights, Jewish, growth of, 115; 
Emancipation in European 
lands, 115-6. 
. Ritual Murder, Blood accusation, 
120. 

Romanticism, 88. 
Rossi, Azarva dei. scholar, note, 
33. 

Rothschilds, financiers, 124. 

Roumania, 118; Hay's letter on 
— , 119 History 'of J. of— 
note, 131. 

Russia : Early Jewish settle- 
ment, 62 ; under Peter the 
Great, 63 ; Pale of Settlement 
(Catherine II), 64; map; in- 
fluence of Polish partition on 
Jews, 64; nineteenth century, 
64-5; Jews broaden under 
liberalism, 66; Alexander II 
frees Serfs, 65; Alexander III 
reactionary, 66; barbaric May 
Laws, 67; pogroms, 68, 190; 
immigration to U. S., 160. 



Sabbath School, Jewish, 165. 
Sabbathai Zevi, false Messiah, 
31. 

Salomon, Haym, patriot. 141. 

Salvador, Francis, patriot, 141. 

Samuel, Sir Herbert, High Com- 
missioner to Palestine, 200; 
port. 199. 



INDEX 



223 



Sanhedrin, Napoleon's 110; ill., 

frontispiece. 
Schechter, Solomon*' scholar, 

165. 

Schiff, J. H., philanthropist, 
162; port. 159. 

Schools, Jewish, 166. 

Schutz-juden, court Jews, 21. 

Science, Jews in, 125-6. 

Scribe, The, copy of Israel's 
picture, 29. 

Seixas, R. Gershom, patriot, 141 

Seminary, in Breslau, 96; Jew- 
ish Theological — of America, 
165. 

Servia, 95. 

Shulchan Aruch, Jewish Code 
-of Law, 28; note, 32: its val- 
ue and limitations, 28. 
Silva, Joseph da, dramatist, 51. 
Sisterhoods, Federation of, 166. 
Spain invites Jewish settlement, 
116, 

Spinoza, Chapter IV, 45 ; — 's 
ethics, 48 ; excommunicated, 
47; character, 47, 50; mono- 
theism, note, 52 ; Tractacus 
Theologico Politicus, 47; port. 
44. 

St\tesmen* Jews as : Ashkenazi, 
Solomon, 26; Benjamin, Jud- 
ah P., 147; Disraeli, Ben- 
jamin, 128; Herzl, Theodor, 
176; Hymans, Paul, 126; 
Isaacs, Sir Rufus (Lord Read- 
ing), 116; Israel, Manasseh 
ben, 35 ; Montague, Sir Ed- 
win, 116; Nasi, Joseph, 24; 
Noah, Mordecai M. 144; 
Peixotto, Benjamin F., 168; 
Samuel, Sir Herbert, 200; 
Straus, Oscar S., 170; Rath- 
enau, Walter, 127. 

Statistics, Jewish, 209-211. 

Steinschneider, historian, note^ 
103. 

Straus, Oscar S., Cabinet min- 
ister, 170. 



Surenhusius, Wm., translates 

Mishna, 41. 
Sweden emancipates Jews, 115. 
Switzerland emancipated Jews, 
• 116. 

Synagogue Poetry, History of, 
93. 

Svnagogues, function, Zunz on, 
92. 

Talmud, Dominican attack on, 
13; its place in Poland, 56. 

Tax Farming, by Jews in Pol- 
and, 57. 

Teutomania, 113. 

Theological Seminary, Jewish, 
165. 

Thirty Years' War, 18. 

Touro, Judah, philanthropist, 
137, 139; port. 13$. t 

Troki, Isaac, writes in defense 
of Judaism, 33. 

Turkey, Jews admitted from 
Venice, 24; A Jewish centre, 
24: Jewish statesmen in — , 
24-7; — and Montefiore, note, 
128. 



Unitarianism, note, 20. 

United States : Chapter XI, 155. 
American Jewish Committee, 
162; Baron de Hirsch, note, 
182; Baron de Hirsch Fund, 
note, 182; Baroness de Hirsch, 
184; Brandeis, L. D., Judge, 
port, 167; Council of Jewish 
Women, 166; Early Jewish 
settlements : New Amsterdam, 
Rhode Island, Carolinas, Penn- 
sylvania, Georgia, 134; Edu- 
cation, 166; Eminent men: M. 
Heilprin, B. F. Peixotto, O. 
S. Straus, A. D. Lasker, S. 
Gompers, A. Marix, 168-70; 
Encyclopedia, Jewish. 158; 
Heroes Revolutionary War : 
Francis Salvador, Major 
Nones, Esther and David 
Hays, Rabbi Seixas, Haym 



224 



MODERN JEWISH HISTORY 



Salomon, 141 ; Hero War of 
1812 : Commodore Levy ; 
Heroes Mexican War : David 
de Leon, Alfred Mordecai, 
146; Heroes War of Rebel- 
lion : Lieut. Col. Newman, 
Brevet Major Gen. Knefler, 
Brevet Brig. Gen. Blumen- 
berg, 147 ; Confederate: 
Adolph Proskauer, Dr. Mark 
Cohen, Capt. Harby, 147; 
Hebrew Union College, 164; 
Immigration, Jewish, 141, 160; 
Jewish .Publication Societies, 
157, Jewish Theological Sem- 
inary, 165 ; Longfellow on 
Newport Cemetery, 139 ; Phil- 
anthropy, Jewish, 158-62; — 
J. H. Scruff, 162; Population, 
Jewish, 155, 209; map; Monu- 
ment for Jewish soldiers fallen 
in Civil War, ill., 154. 
Religion, U. S., 163-5 ; Separ- 
ation of Church and State, 
note, 153; Union American 
Hebrew Congregations, .164; 
Union of Orthodox Congrega- 
tions, 165 ; Womens organiza- 
tions, 166; Wise, I. M., 164; 
Y.M.H.A., Y.W.H.A, 158; Dr. 
Nunez, Asser Levy, Aaron Lo- 
pez, Jacob Lombroso, 134; 
Judah . Touro, 137; Mordecai 
M,. Noah, 145; Isaac Leeser, 
163; Penina Moise, 155; Em- 
ma Lazarus, 155-7, 181; Reb- 
ecca Gratz, 165. 

Vaad of the Four Provinces, a 
Jewish Council, 55. 

Venice expels Jews, 24; — Ghet- 
to, ill 25. 

Vienna, Jews expelled from, 19. 

Washington's tribute to Jews, 
142-3. 

Wessely, N. H., describes low 



status of German Jewry, 74- 
5 ; — 's reforms, 81. 

William of Orange, liberator of 
Netherlands, 35. 

Wise, Isaac M., 164. 

Women, Council of Jewish, 166. 

World War, The, Chapter XII, 
185 : Origin of, 185 ; magni- 
tude of, 186 ; Jewish particip- 
ate, 186-88, note, 208; J. suf- 
fering in, 188-90; Jew, scape- 
goat of, 190; New geograph- 
ical boundaries in consequ- 
ence, 191-92; New countries 
created by the Peace — Poland, 
Czecko- Slovakia, Jugo-Slavia, 
191-2; Palestine: History of, 
195-200; taken by the English, 
200; Gen. Allenby in Jerusal- 
em, ill, 197; Sir Herbert 
Samuel, High Commissioner 
port. 199; Constitution of 202; 
Street scene in, ill, 201 ; 
Rights of minorities in terms 
of Peace, 204-06; League of 
Nations, 206; Ultimate out- 
come of War, 207. 

Yeshiboth, 56. 
Yiddish, 105. 

Young Men's Hebrew Associ- 
ations, 158. 

Young Women's Hebrew Asso- 
ciations, 158. 

Zacut, Moses, dramatist, 168. 

Zamenhof, inventor of Esper- 
anto, 125. 

Zangwill, Israel, novelist, 124. 

Zionism: 175-80: — in Palestine, 
198; Zionist Congress, 179. 

Zunz, Leopold, 89; Bible critic, 
96 ; Christian names, 95 ; ex- 
tracts history from ritual, 92; 
Ignorance a cause of Jewish 
disability^ 94 ; Jewish oath, 95 ; 
Synagogue poetry, 93; Syna- 
gogue's function, 92; port., 91. 

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18 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS . 



tims to perish. Thus Herod, in the massacre 
of the children of Bethlehem, had in view the 
death of the Saviour, and the Saviour alone es- 
caped the massacre. After such palpable facts, 
who would dare oppose the designs of the Al- 
mighty ? 

m. 

LOVE OF VIRTUE. 

After leaving the princess, Jochabed hastened 
home. Her first step was to show her husband 
their saved child, and to tell him all that had 
transpired concerning him. They were full of 
joy and gratitude, and they praised the Lord 
who had been so good in their behalf. 

It may well be imagined how this child, so 
dear to God, was loved by its family, and with 
what religious care he was brought up. True, 
they took him from time to time to the court, 
where Pharaoh's daughter never saw him with- 
out conceiving for her protege stronger senti- 
ments of friendship. When his understanding 
was sufficiently developed, Amram and Jochabed 
taught him the religion of the true God, the 
history of the creation, the deluge, and the life 
of the Patriarchs. They related to him the 
mystery of his birth, the miraculous manner in 



LOVE OF VIRTUE. 



19 



which he was saved, the misfortunes of his peo- 
ple, and their hopes. But a greater master 
than ( his parents engraved in the heart of the 
young Israelite their wise instructions, and 
thenceforward he was inspired with a generous 
contempt for the honors which awaited him at 
the court of the Pharaohs, and this heroic cour- 
age made him prefer the company of the op- 
pressed faithful, to those who spent their lives 
in palaces, in splendor and in riches. 

At length came the time when the child 
should be restored to the princess. This was a 
great trial for a youth of his age — he was not 
more than fourteen years old. Pharaoh's 
daughter had adopted him as her ©wn son, she 
had great affection for him, and she destined 
for h lm a brilliant but pagan education : seduc- 
tive pleasures, pompous sights, a career capable 
of flattering his young ambition ; snares, allure- 
ments, and temptations were offered to him, 
but he was fortified against them ! The great 
advantages which he might have obtained from 
his education, from the instructions of the most 
learned men of Egypt, the good- will and the 
favor of the king, his influence amongst the great 
bf the kingdom, all were reserved for the exe- 
cution of the designs of Providence and for the 
benefit of his brethren. For it is probable that 



20 



CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



he visited his father from time, to time and that 
Amram impressed upon his mind the merciless 
captivity of his brethren, and the hopes of their 
deliverance. 

And let us again admire how Providence 
triumphed over Pharaoh ; this prince wished 
to exterminate the children of the Hebrews, 
and behold, he shelters within the walls of his 
palace, and he caresses as his grandson, he who 
was to deliver the people from the cruel bond- 
age wherein he held them. 

IV. 

GENEROUS SACRIFICE. 

Before Jesus Christ, 1685. 

When Moses was forty years of age, and 
had a perfect knowledge of the Egyptians, 
he felt that God had grand designs in view 
for him ; he therefore scorned all worldly 
grandeur, and animated with a firm and gener- 
ous faith, he resolved to join his oppressed 
brethren. He renounced the title of adopted 
son of Pharaoh's daughter, preferring to be 
afflicted with the people of God, and to suffer 
with them an unjust tyranny, than to live in 
the midst of the glory and favor which the 
court of a powerful monarch offered him. 

He abandoned, then, the palace of the 



GENEROUS SACRIFICE, 



21 



Pharaohs, and went forth amongst the Is- 
raelites, who suffered the most cruel captivity. 
One day that he was in their midst, and was 
lamenting over their sad fate, he perceived at a 
distance an Egyptian who was violently beat- 
ing one of the Hebrews. Moses was seized 
with indignation, and he flew to the rescue of 
his brother. He attacked the infuriated Egyp- 
tian, and he slew him. Fully aware of the 
danger of such a deed, he told the Israelite, 
whom he had delivered from the hands of his 
enemy, to keep the secret, and he buried the 
dead body in the sand. He thought that the 
Israelites would comprehend by this action 
that God had destined him to deliver them, but 
they were unwilling to submit to him, and in- 
stead of profiting by his zeal and his courage, 
they exposed him to the fury of Pharaoh. The 
very day after he had punished the cruel 
Egyptian, Moses returned to the country, and 
there he had the misfortune to witness a scene 
which afflicted him more than that of the pre- 
vious day. Two Hebrews were fighting ; Moses 
demanded the cause of their quarrel, and having 
decided against the transgressor, he said to him 
with authority: " Why do you strike your fellow- 
being ? it little becomes you to kill one another 
whilst the Egyptians are leagued against us ?" 



22 CHILDREN" OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



" And why do you concern yourself about us ?" 
proudly replied the offender; " who then has 
instituted you our judge? You would likely 
treat us as the Egyptian whom you killed yes- 
terday !" At these words, Moses was seized 
with surprise and fear. He thought that this 
deed with which he was reproached, would 
soon reach the King's ears. And indeed, Pha- 
raoh was apprised of the death of the Egyp- 
tian, which was represented to him under the 
darkest colors, and death again was to be the 
punishment of the author of the crime. To 
elude the vengeance of Pharaoh, he fled to the 
land of the Midianites, which was situated on 
the borders of the Red Sea. (Exod. ii.) 

Far preferable is it to suffer exile with a 
noble, just, and generous heart, than to do 
wrong and to remain the favorite of a prince, 
and to enjoy the happiness of the impious. 
Justice and truth are more valuable than all 
the gold in the world : so thought Moses, so 
think honest men. 



THE "WELL OF MIDI AN. 



23 



THE TERM OF A LONG EXILE. 
I. 

THE TTELL OF MXDIAN. 

Moses halted at a short distance from the 
dwelling of the priest of Midian. This priest 
adored the true God, and his name was Ragnel 
or Jethro ; he bad seven daughters, whom he 
occupied guarding the herds. Such, then and 
there, was the employment of honorable fami- 
lies, and girls were not exempted therefrom. 

The illustrious fugitive, like Jacob, when he 
arrived in Mesopotamia, rested himself near the 
well. He saw the daughters of Jethro filling 
their troughs with water for their flocks. 
Their work near over, some shepherds hap- 
pened to come that way, and they thought to 
set aside these laborious girls, to use the water 
which they had destined for their cattle. Moses 
noticed their rude behavior, and felt indignant 
at them. He defended the shepherdesses and 
sent away their usurpers ; and having aided 
them to draw sufficient water, he took charge 
of their herds. Pleased at this kind interfer- 
ence of the stranger, Jethro's daughters thanked 
hi;n, and having inquired whence he came, 



24 



CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



they returned to their father's house. Having 
been assisted in their work, they had returned 
home sooner than was their wont to do. Their 
lather desired to know the cause of their early 
return. "It is," said they. " because an Egyp- 
tian whom we do not know, defended us 
against the violence of some strange shepherds. 
He drew water for us. and he gave drink to 
our cattle."' " Where is the man ?"' exclaimed 
Jethro ; " you should have given him marks of 
gratitude ; and you should have conducted him 
hither. Retrace your steps, and endeavor to 
find your benefactor ; let him come and partake 
of our repast*" 

Closes was still sitting near the well, and 
Jethro's daughters invited him to follow them 
to their father's house. He readily accepted, 
and he found so much kindness, so much sym- 
pathy, from Jethro, that they were soon united 
by the sincerest friendship. Jethro made him 
promise that he would remain in his family, 
and later he married one of his daughters 
named Sephora. For forty years Moses was 
herdsman for his father-in-law. (Exod. ii.) 

A good action is never accomplished in vain ; 
and if it be not rewarded in this life, it surely 
will in the next. 



i 



FLAMES WHICH DO NOT CONSUME. 25 



II. 

FLAMES WHICH DO XOT CONSUME. 

Moses expected the fulfilment of the promise 
of Almighty God regarding His people. Am- 
ram, his father, was dead, leaving to his chil- 
dren the tradition of all past events, which 
he had received from Levi, his grandfather ; and 
Levi from his great grandfather, Isaac ; and 
Isaac from his father. 

Pharaoh and those of his courtiers who had 
sworn the death of Moses, no longer existed; 
and Moses, the illustrious exile, could return 
without fear, to Egypt. Xever was his pres- 
ence more needed. The new monarch, whose 
name was also Pharaoh (a name common to all 
kings of Egypt), oppressed the Israelites more 
than ever. The latter were bitterly lamenting 
under the heavy yoke which overwhelmed 
them, but they anxiously expected the day of 
their deliverance. Their prayers reached the 
throne of God, who heard them with compas- 
sion, and was willing to "be merciful to them, 
and to execute His promise in their behalf. 
One day that Moses was driving the cattle of 
Jethro, and was far advanced in the desert, 
he found himself at the foot of Mount Horeb. 
3 



CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



This mountain is situated near the famous 
Mount Sinai, which God had chosen to be 
the theatre of so many wonders. Suddenly 
God appeared to him, amid a burning bush, 
and under the figure of a bright fame, that 
was resplendent with light, but it neither con- 
sumed the branches nor the leaves of the 
bush. Moses was amazed at such a marvellous 
occurrence. "I shall draw near,*' said he, 
" and I shall see vrhy this bush does not burn, 
though so dazzling with fire." He eagerly ap- 
proached it, when the Lord, desiring him to 
contemplate this vision, with due respect to 
His majesty, made His voice heard by these 
words: "Moses! Moses!" — "Here I am, Lord,"' 
answered he. " Approach not nearer ; take off 
your shoes, for the ground on which you tread 
is sanctified by the presence of your God. I 
am the Go:l of your father, the God of Abra- 
ham, "the God of Isaac, the God of Jacob.'' 

On hearing these words, Moses trembled, for 
he was seized with a religious fear, he covered 
his face with his hands, and he dared not raise 
his eyes whence came the voice. " I have seen 
with compassion," continued the Lord, " the 
calamities of my people, their cries and their 
lamentations have reached mine ear ; I have 
heard their complaints, I am aware of the 



FLAMES WHICH DO NOT CONSUME. 



21 



cruelty of their taskmasters, I have seen the 
multitude and the violence of the evils with 
which they are afflicted ; touched therefore at 
their grievances. I descend from the height of 
my glory to deliver them. I shall take them 
out of the hands of the Egyptians, and from 
that country where they are slaves ; I shall send 
them into a fertile, rich, and extensive land, now 
occupied by the Canaanites. It shall be accom- 
plished ; the children of Israel shall not implore 
iu vain the assistance of God. and the Egyptians 
shall not continue to oppress them with impu- 
nity. Prepare yourself, Moses ! arm yourself 
with zeal; it is you whom I destine to go forth 
to Pharaoh to force him to let the Israelites 
depart from Egypt, (Exod. iii.) 

What goodness on the part of God ! He loves 
His children as a tender father. He pities those 
who suffer, He hears their sighs, and He counts 
their tears. "Who could not love so compassion- 
ate a Father? who could refuse Him his con- 
fidence ? 



* 



28 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

Ill 

THE MIRACULOUS ROD. 

Moses was seized with fear ; and whether 
from timidity, or diffidence in himself, he ex- 
cused, himself for a long time; it seemed, as it 
were, that the Lord should compromise with 
His servant, that He should answer for whatever 
was to happen, and that after dealing gently 
with him He should make him comprehend 
how terrible His wrath would otherwise be. 

God then, had made known His will unto 
Moses. "Ah! who am I, O Lord, that I 
should go to Pharaoh, and should deliver the 
children of Israel ?" " I shall be with you," 
replied the Lord ; " all you undertake shall 
be marked by some miracle. When you shall 
have delivered my people, you shall offer me 
victims at the foot of this mountain whereon I 
shall give you my commands." " I must then 
go forth amongst the Israelites," answered 
Moses, " and I shall say: the God of your fathers 
has sent me to you. But if they ask me the 
name of this God, what answer shall I give ?" 
" I am who am" replied the Lord ; "go and 
tell your brethren : He who sends me to you is 
the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, 



THE MLBACTJLOUS ROD. 29 

the God of Isaac, the God of Jacob ; this is my 
name forever ; under this merciful name shall I 
make myself known to my people in the ages to 
come. Go, assemble the elders of Israel, and 
tell them all that I have said unto you : The 
God of my fathers has appeared to me, he has 
said : in my goodness I have visited my people. 
I have seen the evils with which they are 
stricken, I shall withdraw them from this abyss 
of s altering to send them forth into a land flow- 
ing with milk and honey. Your brethren will 
listen to your voice, and at the head of them 
you will go before Pharaoh to ask him to let 
the people depart into the desert to offer sacri- 
fices to God : he will not hear you, then I shall 
extend my hand and many plagues shall afflict 
him and his people ; and the king, severely 
chastised, will allow you to go, and you shall 
carry with you the rich spoils of Egypt." " But, 
O Lord, the Hebrews to whom you send me, 
will not believe me, they will look upon me as 
an impostor, and they will say the Lord has not 
appeared unto you." " Well ! I shall give you 
something which will convince the incredulous. 
What do you hold in your hand?" "A rod," 
responded Moses. " Cast it on the ground," 
said the Lord to him. Moses obeyed, and im- 
mediately it was changed into a serpent, so that 
3* 



30 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

he trembled with fear and was about to nee ; 
but God said to him : " Fear not, take the ser- 
pent by the tail," Moses took hold of it, 
and the serpent was again transformed into a 
rod. God said also to him, "Put your hand 
into your bosom." Moses obeyed, and he 
withdrew his hand covered with a leprosy as 
white as snow. " Put back your hand into your 
bosom," said the Lord, and Moses withdrew it, 
perfectly cured. " Whatsoever I have done 
before you," added the Lord, " you shall do 
before the Hebrews, and by those miracles, 
they will acknowledge that the God of your 
fathers has appeared unto you ; if they do not 
believe you, you will take, in their presence, 
water from the river, and you will pour it on 
the sand and it will change into blood." " But O 
Lord, I implore you," replied Moses, " to con- 
sider that I do not speak fluently, neither hereto- 
fore, nor since your servant has heard your 
voice." The resistance of Moses, or rather his 
great timidity, had something very strange in it. 
But God continued to manifest His patience 
towards him. " Who made the tongue of 
man?" said the Lord to him; u who gave him 
speech ? who made the deaf, the dumb, the 
blind, aud he who sees? Is it not I? Go 
forth then in peace, and do my will ; I shall 



THE MIEACULOrS EOD. 



33 



speak by your lips, and I shall inspire you with 
whatsoever you shall say."' Moses's heart failed 
him, yet taking a supplicating tone he said : " I 
pray you, Lord, to send Him whom you have 
promised to send." But the time had not 
come, and the darkness should pass away before 
the truth* appeared to the world. 

The many excuses of Moses offended God, 
but he said to him, 4i You have a brother named 
Aaron, who is also of the tribe of Levi; he can 
express himself with eloquence and grace. I 
shall send him to meet you, and he will be over- 
joyed. He shall speak for you, apprise him 
then of all that has transpired. He shall be 
your interpreter to the people, and you shall be 
mine to him ; in such like manner you shall 
both learn the means whereby you are to exe- 
cute my will. Keep the rod you hold, for it 
shall be the instrument of many miracles." 
Moses no longer showed resistance, and he 
immediately obeyed the Lord. (Exod. hi., iv.) 

Diffidence in one's self should have its limits, 
otherwise it degenerates into pusillanimity, just 
as self-confidence and boldness may change 

* That is to say. the Messiah, which was to deliver the 
world from a servitude more cruel than that of Egypt. 
This is why Moses asked that this Saviour should be 
sent to deliver the people of Israel. 



32 CHILDHEX OF THE PATKIAECHS. 



into presumption. When God speaks to us, 
we should prove to Him the sincere confidence 
we have in His power. 

IV. 

HAPPY MEETING AT MOUNT HOREB, 

Moses had manifested great weakness, or 
rather a want of confidence in his own strength, 
but he was incapable of revolt. He therefore 
bent his steps towards Midian, and he said to 
Jethro, his father-in-law : " I shall return to my 
brethren who are suffering in captivity, I wish 
to see if they are still alive." " Go in peace," said 
Jethro to him ; and Moses took his wife Sephora 
and his two children ; he placed them on an ass, 
and they departed for Egypt, Moses holding 
all the while the miraculous rod, called the 
Lord's rod, by reason of its performing so many 
wonders. His younger child had not been cir- 
cumcised, and the angel of the Lord appeared 
unto him, and he was in anger. Sephora took 
therefore a stone and inflicted upon him this 
painful operation. She then resolved to return 
to her father with her two sons. Moses 
thought that such was the will of God, who 
wished to make him comprehend that a strange 
woman and her young children would be an 



HAPPY MEETING AT MOUNT HOREB. 



33 



encumbrance for a man charged with the direc- 
tion of the people of God. 

However, God, who had spoken to Moses at 
the foot of Mount Horeb, warned also his bro- 
ther Aaron : " Depart, 15 said He to him ; " delay 
not to meet your brother in the desert ; he will 
inform you of my designs." Aaron went forth 
immediately, and with full confidence in the 
Lord, he joined Moses at the foot of Mount 
Horeb. They embraced each other with all 
the marks of the most tender love. 

Then Moses acquainted his brother of the 
orders of the Lord, His promises, and the 
charges He had given them both. Aaron be- 
lieved, and he humbly submitted to the will of 
God, and with joy did he set himself to the 
deliverance of his nation. 

The union of these two great men was the 
salvation of Israel. They went forth together 
into the land of Goshen, to inform the Israelites 
of the solemn mission wherewith they were 
honored. The Hebrews took great care not to 
confound their tribes, and to conserve their 
genealogy. The heads of the tribes and those 
of the families were called the elders, and m 
general deliberations, they represented the na- 
tion. These elders were called by the ambas- 
sadors of God to assemble. Aaron related to 
3 



34 CHILDEEZST OF THE PATFvIAKCHS. 



them lengthily all that had taken place at 
Horeb, and Moses confirmed his mission by 
operating miracles, as the Lord had command- 
ed him. 

Their first undertakings were crowned with 
success. The Israelites believed that God had 
taken pity on His people, and that the time of 
their liberty had come. They knelt and. adored 
God, and they committed themselves to the 
guidance of Moses, who was then eighty years 
of age, and his brother was eighty-three. (Exod. 
iv.) 

It is admirable to consider the union of those 
two illustrious men ; but it is in a degree more 
so in Aaron, who conceived no jealousy to- 
wards his younger brother, who was chosen 
by God to be the true deliverer of Israel, whilst 
he was only his minister and his interpreter. 



INCREASE OF LABOR. 



35 



THE 

CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS 

DELIVERED FROM BONDAGE. 



STRANGE OBDURACY. 
L 

INCREASE OF LABOR. 

Before Jesus Christ, 1645. 

In freeing the Israelites from bondage, it was 
in the views of Providence that they should 
meet with insuperable obstacles and extraor- 
dinary contradictions. Nevertheless, the Israel- 
ites flattered themselves that Moses alone 
should undergo the difficulties. This base 
spirit caused Moses the deepest sorrow ; so 
that he had less trouble to overcome the resist- 
ance of an impious tyrant than to hold in sub- 
mission a nation qualified with the title of 
children of Gocl. Moses and his brother entered 
on their mission with fortitude. They presented 



36 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



themselves forthwith before Pharaoh, and said 
to him : " Hear, prince, the commands of the 
Lord, the God of Israel. Give my people the 
liberty to go forth into the desert to offer 
victims to the Lord." Bat this impious king 
responded : " Who is the Lord of whom you 
speak ? Wherefore should He exact that I 
obey His will, and that I give liberty to this 
people ? Ko ; I know not your God, and Israel 
phall not leave my kingdom." " Prince," re- 
plied they, "if you do not know the Lord, we 
know Him. He has commanded us to journey 
during three days from Egypt, to go into the 
dessrt and to immolate victims to Him. He 
must be obeyed ; and if we are rebellious, He 
will punish us either by plagues or by the 
aveno-irjo' sword." "You alone have raised 
your people to revolt ; you have prevented them 
to pursue the works I have procured them. 
Begone from my presence, and resume your 
occupations." 

Immediately Pharaoh assembled the officers 
who were appointed to oversee the works of 
the Israelites, and he said : " You see how this 
people- multiply ; what would it be if they were 
at rest ? Far from lessening their labor, I shall 
increase it, so that they have no time for thought. 
Until now they have been furnished with the 



INCREASE OF LAEOE. 



37 



necessary straw for bricks ; make retrench- 
ment, and let them go forth into the fields and 
gather it. They have not enough work, this is 
why they complain : ' Lei lis go into the desert 
and make sacrifices to God.' Let ns crush 
them with labor, and allow them not to listen 
to impostors, who deceive them." Those orders 
were executed ; they were overtasked with 
work, and they were obliged to supply the 
usual quantity of bricks. If they neglected do- 
ing so, they were thrown into prison ; they 
were ill-treated, and even whipped like vile 
slaves. Not believing that the king could have 
issued orders so unjust, so contrary to reason, 
they rushed in crowds to the palace to report 
the treatment inflicted upon them. They were 
responded to with the direst contempt : " You 
have not enough work ; you are in idleness. 
'Let us go,' say you, 'into the desert, and let 
us offer sacrifices to our God.' Hence ! to your 
work ; I have said it ; you shall not be supplied 
with straw, and you shall accomplish your or- 
dinary task." Then they went to meet Moses 
and Aaron, who were stationed in the neigh- 
borhood of the palace, in order to learn the 
answer they should receive. "You are the cause," 
said they to him, in wrath, " that we are reduced 
to such affliction. TYemust die under the yoke 



38 , CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

of the Egyptians. You have angered the king ; 
you have made us odious in his sight ; you have 
placed in the hands of this tyrant a sword 
whereby we shall perish. That God be your 
judge and ours V (Exod. v.) 

A minister of the Lord, or any superior who 
consecrates himself to the salvation of his 
brethren, must expect murmurs and discontent 
from them. Human zeal may be discouraged, 
and undertakings may be opposed by in grates, 
who themselves should be interested in its suc- 
cess, and they abandon the cause. But such 
was not the character of Moses. 

II. 

A SERPENT. 

Moses listened patiently to the complaints 
of his people; he did not reproach them, nor 
did he even endeavor to reason with them ; but 
he unbosomed himself to God. In such like 
manner should we act in the depth of our 
troubles. " O Lord," said he, with a tender liber- 
ty ; " why should you thus continue to afflict 
your people ? Why did you send me to promise 
them your assistance ? No sooner had I in- 
formed Pharaoh of your orders than this im- 
pious prince, instead of obeying you, added 



A SERPEOT. 39 

% 

cruelty to cruelty." The Lord tempered the 
grief of Moses by this answer : U I choose you 
to be the minister of my vengeance ; I have 
heard the lamentations of the children of Israel. 
Go amongst them and say : Here is what the 
Lord of our fathers has said : I am the Lord ; I 
shall deliver you from captivity ; I shall sever 
che chains which bind you. You shall be my 
people, and I am your God. Remember, that 
I shall remove the obstacles which retain you 
in bondage. I shall lead you into the promised 
land. Those things shall come to pass, for I 
am the Lord." What a consoling answer ! How 
good is God to speak thus to His servants. 
Moses was fortified by those solacing words ; 
he repeated them faithfully to his people, but 
they remained insensible towards him, so 
plunged were they in the depths of bitterness 
by the arduous labor that overwhelmed them. 
The Lord said again to Moses, " Go, present 
yourself to Pharaoh, and tell him to let the 
children of Israel depart from his kingdom." 
" Ah ! Lord," answered Moses, " the children of 
Israel, my brethren, do not deign to hear me. 
When I shall speak to them through you, how 
can I make myself heard by an impious king, I 
who have not the gift of speech ?" " Go," said 
the Lord to him, " now I establish you the 



40 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

god of Pharaoh, and your brother shall be 
your prophet and your orgaa. It is true that 
Pharaoh will only obey in spite of himself, but 
I shall abandon him, if he refuse to acknow- 
ledge me, and if his heart harden. I shall ex- 
tend my hand to my people, and I shall liberate 
them as a victorious army, and by the most 
brilliant wonders of my Almighty. The Egyp- 
tians know that I am the Lord, who wall chas- 
tise them, and who will free the children of 
Israel, despite them." Moses and Aaron has- 
tened to execute the orders of God. They pre- 
sented themselves before the king, and they re- 
newed their demand. Pharaoh desired them 
to operate miracles. Then, in presence of the 
king and his court, Aaron cast the rod of Moses, 
and it changed into a serpent ; but Pharaoh 
was not satisfied with this miracle, and he 
called his magicians and his enchanters, the 
chiefs of whom were Jannes and Mambres : the 
latter by the power of the demon, or rather by 
their enchantments, imitated the miracle of the 
servants of God, but their triumph was not of 
long duration ; for the serpent formed by the 
rod of Aaron devoured those of the magicians. 
On seeing this, the king became more hardened, 
and the God of Israel was neither recognized 
nor obeyed. (Exod. v., vi., vii.) 



BLOOD, FROGS, GXATS, AXD FLIE-3. 41 



Let us here admire the goodness of God, His 
patience and His justice ; and let us deplore 
the hard-heartedness and the impiety of this 
prince, who dared to deny the Master of the 
elements, and to disobey His orders by his ob- 
duracy. Soon we shall see him cause his own 
ruin. Such is the end of all obdurate sinners. 

XXL 

BLOOD, FROGS, GXATS, AND FLIES. 

God, in His infinite goodness, endeavored to 
convert the unbelieving prince by operating 
miracles ; but terrible plagues and dreadful 
chastisement were henceforward and succes- 
sively to take place, and they were to be pro- 
portionate to the obduracy of the prince and his 
subjects. These were the ten plagues of Egypt. 
Abiding by the order of God, Moses and Aaron 
went early in the morning on the banks of the 
river, where Pharaoh was in the habit of walk- 
ing ; they asked him to allow the people to go 
forth into the desert to offer sacrifices to God, 
but he again refused to do so. Then Aaron, in 
the presence of the king and his courtiers, 
struct the waters of the river, and immediately 
they changed into blood. The waters became 
corrupted, and the fish perished therein. The 



42 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

Egyptians could no longer drink of those waters, 
and they were reduced to the necessity of dig- 
ging wells from distance to distance, so as to 
obtain water fit for use. This first plague 
lasted seven days. 

A river of blood ! What a marvel ! But the 
king and his subjects still remained in their ob- 
duracy, and they were not converted. Thus do 
the wicked refuse to acknowledge the salutary 
terrors which God manifests to warn them of 
their danger. Pharaoh refused then to let 
them go forth into the desert, and Moses told 
him that he was about inflicting a new plague, 
but his threat was in vain, and, according to 
his order, Aaron stretched his hand over the 
marshes, the rivers, and the streams, and all 
Egypt was instantly covered with frogs ; they 
spread into the palace of the king, in his apart- 
ment, and even in his bed. The dwellings of 
his servants and those of his subjects were in- 
fested thereof ; they swarmed in the kitchens, 
on the tables, and the very meals were be- 
gnawed by them; but they seemed to know 
the dwellings of the Hebrews ; they respected 
them, and they entered not therein. In the 
midst of such a calamity, Pharaoh called Moses 
and his brother, and begged of them to deliver 
him from this enormous quantity of frogs, and 



BLOOD, FEOGS, GXATS, AND FLIES. 



43 



that he would then give them their liberty. " I 
shall do as you say," answered Moses, " in order 
that you acknowledge that our God is the true 
God." Moses prayed, his prayers were heard, 
and those troublesome reptiles instantly ceased 
to exist. The Egyptians made such heaps of 
them that the corruption therefrom caused dur- 
ing several days a most noxious smell. Those 
frogs represent persons who afflict the Church 
by their disputes and their discussions. 

Moses had too readily relied upon the pro- 
mise of Pharaoh; for scarcely had the latter 
been delivered from one plague, when this 
wicked prince hardened his heart again. Ano- 
ther punishment was therefore in store for him. 
By the order of the Lord, Aaron, armed with 
the rod of Moses, struck the dust of the ground, 
and instantly Egypt was covered with such a 
thick cloud of gnats, that it seemed as though 
all the sand in the kingdom had been changed 
into a frightful multitude of those insects. They 
tormented both men and beasts, and it was im- 
possible to banish them. Until then, Pharaoh's 
magicians had operated the same wonders by 
their enchantment ; withal, they could not, like 
Moses, destroy them. On witnessing this third 
plague, they found themselves completely impo- 
tent, and astonished at the power wherewith 



44 CHILDREN OF TH*E PATEIAECHS. 

those two great men were invested, they 
avowed themselves vanquished, and they said 
to Pharaoh, " The finger of God is here." 
Gnats ! — such is the stumbling-block of their 
power. God permitted this incapacity of the 
magicians, in order that Pharaoh should have 
no pretext of unbelief. But this unfaithful 
prince would not listen to his magicians when 
they said to him, Assuredly the finger of God is 
here. And he would *not consent to the de- 
parture of the Israelites. 

God in His mercy forewarned Pharaoh of a 
fourth plague, which would be still more ter- 
rible than the others. Moses spoke to the 
king, hut he was deaf to his words. Then, in- 
numerable swarms of flies of different species 
spread all over Egypt ; after a short while, the 
whole country was covered with them. Pha- 
raoh in his palace, the great men of the court 
in their superb dwellings, the citizens, and the 
people in the country, were all equally tor 
mented, and often mortally stung by them. 
Every thing was destroyed and corrupted by 
their dangerous bites, and the land, far and 
wide, swarmed with them. To make Pha- 
raoh fully aware that the hand of God was 
upon him, he was informed how the land of 
Gessen was exempt from all these plagues, but 
he would not give in to such striking evidences. 



BLOOD, FROGS, GNATS, AND FLIES. 45 



However, the calamity was so great, that the 
king had again recourse to the ordinary remedy, 
and he called for Moses and Aaron ; and when 
they were both in his presence : " Go, said he, 
and sacrifice to your God! but why leave my 
states ?" " Prince," said they, " the animals 
which are your gods are to be our victims. If 
your subjects see us spill the blood of these pre- 
tended divinities they will stone us to death." 
"Well then, be it so," replied Pharaoh; "go 
sacrifice in the desert ; but above all, pray for 
me, so that God deliver me from those cruel 
insects." " Prince," responded Moses, on leav- 
ing the palace, " I shall implore the Lord, and 
the plague will disappear ; but do you keep your 
promise, and let us accomplish the commands 
of our God." And Moses prayed, and instantly 
all the flies vanished. But, strange blindness ! 
when Pharaoh was delivered of this plague, he 
refused to fulfil his promise. (Exod. vii., viii.) 

In the midst of these terrible chastisements, 
we ever behold the goodness of God. It would 
have been easy for God to immediately have 
sent lious to exterminate this obstinate prince ; 
but no, He had pity on the weakness of men ; 
His first chastisements are slight, but at length 
they become terrible in His wrath. 



46 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



IV. 

THE MURRAIN, THE ULCERS, AXD 
THE HAIL. 

By the four first plagues, God had only, as it 
were, manifested His auger. Until then, but a 
few drops of the cup of affliction had been 
spilled ! 

By. order of God, Moses again presented 
himself before Pharaoh, and he warned him of 
the dreadful calamity which was to overwhelm 
his subjects if he persisted in refusing the Is- 
raelites to depart, Pharaoh would not hear 
him, and full soon were the menaces of Moses 
realized. An epidemy spread all over Egypt : 
horses, mules, camels, oxen, and sheep alike 
perished. The Israelites did not lose a single 
beast. Pharaoh took information of this fact, 
and learned its veracity ; yet he persisted in his 
disobedience, and he refused to let the people 
of God depart out of Egypt, Is it possible, 
that after such prodigious miracles, Pharaoh's 
heart should yet be unmoved? But no, his 
obduracy continued to increase. 

Another plague soon followed, and Moses 
and Aaron, by the order of God, endeavored 
to overcome Pharaoh ; but it was of no avail. 
Then Moses took ashes, and sprinkled it to- 



THE MURRAIN, THE ULCEES, AND HAIL. 47 



Trarcls heaven, and, immediately, men and ani- 
mals, throughout the kingdom, were afflicted 
with ulcers, which covered their bodies. The 
magicians, who were always present at the in- 
terviews of the servants of God with Pharaoh, 
were so cruelly inflicted with, this distemper, 
that they were full of confusion and trouble. 
At length, Pharaoh merited by his wickedness 
the terrible vengeance of the sovereign Judge. 
But before this last punishment, whereby he 
should perish, God prepared others for him, 
the abuse of which made him unpardonable. 
Closes was grieved at his obduracy, and he 
tried once more to soften his heart. He rose 
early in the morning and begged of him, in the 
name of the Almighty, to let the Israelites go 
into the desert, and he told him that if he did 
not obey, the most dreadful afflictions would 
fall upon him and his people. These entreaties 
were' not heard, Then Moses raised his hand 
to heaven, and immediately, the firmament was 
covered with dense clouds ; the lightning flashed, 
the thunder rolled, and a most dreadful haL 
fell causing so much destruction, that, since the 
beginning of the monarchy, Egypt had never 
witnessed such a scene. 3Ien and beasts alike 
perished; every thing was destroyed, herbs 
and plants were' crushed to the ground, the 



48 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



trees were rent asunder; and whilst all this 
took place, the land of Gessen remained tran- 
quil, and seemed sheltered from this terrible 
plague. After such a severe chastisement, one 
would hope to see Pharaoh converted. True, 
he demanded the presence of Moses and Aaron. 
"I have sinned," said he, " the Lord is just ; my 
people and I are impious. Pray then, to the 
Lord to stay the storm, the thunder, and the 
lightning, and the hail ; then depart, for I shall 
no longer retain you." " Well, then," answered 
Moses, " when I shall have left the city, I shall 
raise my hand toward heaven ; I shall invoke 
the Lord, and the hail shall cease, and the 
thunder will no longer be heard ; thereby you 
will acknowledge that our God is the master of 
earth." 

Moses left Pharaoh and the city, and every 
thing came to pass as he had predicted, but the 
king's heart was hardened again. Seeing the 
storm quelled, he would not allow the children 
of Israel to depart, as God had ordained it, and 
as Pharaoh had promised them. (Exod. ix.) 

This is a figure of those hardened sinners who 
promise repentance when God shows His wrath, 
but who persist meanwhile in their impeni- 
tence. 



THE LOCUSTS AND THE DARKNESS. 49 



V. 

THE LOCUSTS AND THE DARKNESS. 

" The chastisements which I inflict in my 
mercy," said the Lord to Moses, " increase the 
hard-heartedness of Pharaoh and that of his 
counsellors ; if they do not profit by it, it is 
their fault ; but, at least, they will be a means 
of enlightening you and your children ; you will 
relate to them all the wonderful things I have 
wrought against your enemies, the Egyptians, 
and you will say that I am the Lord. Continue 
to speak to Pharaoh on my part." Moses ac- 
companied his brother to the palace, and spoke 
to the king in a firm and resolute tone, and, 
threatening him with terrible afflictions, he 
abruptly left him, with an air of indignation 
which surprised the guilty king and his cour- 
tiers. " Prince," said the latter to him, " how 
long shall we suffer by these dreadful calami- 
ties ? Let those people depart ; let them im- 
molate to their God. Delay will cause the 
ruin of our country." Then the king recalled 
Moses and Aaron, and said to them : " Well, 
I shall permit you to depart, but name me 
those who should go thither ?" " All," answered 
Moses; u men, women, and children, maidens 
5 



50 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



and aged persons ! "We shall also take our 
flocks and our herds with us, for it is to be the 
great solemnity of the Lord our God." " This is 
what you have concealed so artfully, under pre- 
text of offering victims to your God. But it 
shall not be ! Let the men go celebrate this 
festival, if they wish, and hope for no more." 
Thus spake the prince, and the servants of God 
were ignominiously driven from the presence 
of Pharaoh. 

Moses stretched his hand over the land, and 
during a day and a night there blew, by order 
of the Lord, a dry and burning wind, which 
brought forth an immense cloud of locusts. 
They fastened themselves to the trees and to 
the grain; they devoured the grass of the 
fields, the fruit and the leaves, in a short space 
of time ; the finest season of the year was 
changed into a gloomy winter. Pharaoh was 
again discouraged, and he besought the return 
of Moses and Aaron. On beholding them, he 
assumed an air of consternation. "I have 
sinned against the Lord and against you," said 
he, " but pardon me this fault, and pray the 
God of Israel to deliver me from this horri- 
ble plague!" Moses went forth and prayed, 
and immediately a westerly wind arose and 
swept away all the locusts into the Red Sea. 



LOCUSTS AND THE DARKNESS. 51 



But neither pardon nor chastisement changed 
the heart of this tyrant. How great, O God, 
is your goodness, your patience, and your 
mercy ! You forewarn the sinner, and whilst 
you punish him you wish his good. 

The continued obduracy of Pharaoh drew 
forth upon him another plague. It was not as 
destructive as the others, but it was more terri- 
ble. By the order of God, Moses raised his 
hand towards heaven, and suddenly all Egypt 
was covered with an extraordinary darkness 
which spread fear and awe amongst the people. 
The sunshine could not penetrate this darkness, 
much less any artificial light ; but from time to 
time it was lit up with a momentary fire that 
presented to the eye the most hideous spectres, 
the most frightful forms, lugubrious groans and 
horrible hissings struck the ear, and one might 
have dreaded, at every moment, to be de- 
voured by the wild, beasts of Egypt. During 
this calamity the Israelites enjoyed, both light 
and tranquillity. 

This ninth plague lasted three entire days, 
and the prince made no effort to humble him- 
self. However, he demanded the presence of 
Moses and Aaron and said to them : " Go then 
into the desert, but let your flocks and herds, 
your women and your children remain here." 



52 



CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



" Xo. prince,'' replied Moses, " we must leave 
Egypt with the victims necessary for our sacri- 
fices ; naught shall remain, not even the hoof of 
the smallest of our lambs. On hearing these 
words, Pharaoh became furious, and he revoked 
the permission he had given. " Retire from my 
presence." said he to Moses, "and never again 
appear before me. If yon have the audacity to 
re-enter my palace, I shall have you at once put 
to death." ; - Xo,*' said Moses. u we shall not 
return without express orders, audi shall not de- 
part before I warn you of afflictions greater still 
than all the rest, if you do not prevent it by a 
prompt obedience.'' And the minister of God 
told him. how dreadful should be the tenth 
plague. Then he withdrew, fall of just indig- 
nation. Pharaoh persisted in his disobedience, 
and the Israelites did not depart. (Exod. x.. xi.) 

What a strange and dreadful obduracy in 
this prince ! This darkness Which seemed to 
harden the heart of Pharaoh and his subjects 
figures the obduracy of the wicked, which at 
length leads them to eternal darkness, where 
disorder and desolation reign forever : on the 
other hand, a pure and gentle light from heaven 
will infallibly lead the good to the regions of 
bliss, like the Israelites. 



THE BLOOD OF THE LAMB, 



h'6 



VI. 

THE BLOOD OF THE LAMB. 

God came again to the assistance of His ser- 
vant. The plague with which you have 
threatened Pharaoh," said He to him, "is near 
at hand ; and after its accomplishment, I shall 
deliver my people from Egypt. Tell them to 
dispose themselves accordingly ; and let men, 
women, and children go into the neighborhood 
of Harnesses, in the present month, and let 
them take thither their flocks and their herds. 
Before leaving their dwellings, they shall ask 
the Egyptians, their neighbors, for gold and 
silver vases, and precious ornaments, to be used 
at the ceremony of immolation. They will 
readily give them. You will tell the Israelites 
that I give them those ornaments in payment 
for their long and hard labor. Tel! them that 
this month, marked for their departure from 
Egypt, shall henceforth be, for them, the first 
of the year ;* and that on the tenth day of this 
month, each of the elders or the fathers of the 

* This month, called Nisan, might correspond with the 
latter half of our month of March, and with the first of 
that of April. It was. for the Jews, the first month of 
the ecclesiastical year ; their civil year began in autumn. 
5* 



54 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



families shall put aside a male lamb without 
blemish ; in default of a lamb, they shall take a 
kid. If the family assembled be not large 
enough to consume the iamb at one meal, they 
shall associate with them some of their neigh- 
bors. The lamb, put aside on the tenth of the 
month, shall be kept until the fourteenth, and 
on the night of this day, the head of the family 
shall immolate to God. My will is, that all the 
children of Israel participate in this ceremony. 
They shall keep some of the blood of the vic- 
tim, and dip therein some branches of hyssop, 
and they shall sprinkle the tops of their door- 
posts with this blood. The lamb shall be 
roasted whole, — the body, the head, even the 
entrails. At this repast they shall use un- 
leavened bread. With the flesh of the lamb 
they shall eat wild and bitter lettuce. It shall 
all be consumed in the same family, and if any 
remain, it shall be reduced to ashes with the 
bones. Here now. are the necessary disposi- 
tions to partake of this repast : my people shall 
be dressed as travellers, with their loins girded 
and shoes on their feet, and their staff in their 
hand. They shall eat standing and in haste, 
for it is the Pasch, that is to say, the passage 
of the Lord. I have chosen the night to pass 
through Egypt and to strike with death the 



THE BLOOD OF THE LAMB. 



55 



first-born of the Egyptians, men as well as 
animals. This is the moment I have chosen for 
my vengeance against all the divinities of 
Egypt ; for I am the Lord and the God of all 
nations. Those alone shall be saved whose 
doors will be sprinkled with the blood of the 
lamb. 

" This day shall be as an eternal memorial of 
my power and mercy, and in remembrance of 
which you shall establish a solemnity, which 
from generation to generation shall pass to your 
last descendants. During seven days, you shall 
eat of unleavened bread, and whosoever 
amongst ye be guilty of eating any other shall 
be exterminated in your midst. The first and the 
last of these days shall be solemn, and no ser- 
vile work shall be performed ; during the five 
other days they can perform their usual occu- 
pations." 

Moses and Aaron reassembled the people of 
Israel and informed them of the commands of 
the Almighty, entering into the minutest de- 
. tails, in order that nothing should be forgotten 
regarding the different circumstances pointed 
out to them. 

"In conclusion, it is not," added they, "a 
transient ceremony as one of a day, for it must 
be renewed every year, and be perpetuated from 



56 



CHILDREN OP THE PATRIAECHS, 



generation to generation. Ton shall celebrate 
this festival when yon are in possession of that 
beautiful land which has been promised to our 
fathers. And when your children will ask the 
signification of this religious practice, answer 
them that it is the Pasch, or the victim of the 
Lord ; when at the time of our captivity, God 
smote the first-born of the Egyptians, whilst he 
spared the Israelites." After hearing those 
commands, the children of Israel bowed their 
heads, they prostrated themselves, and they 
adored the Lord. (Exod. xii.) 

The Christians also celebrate the passage of 
the Lord ; but no longer, it is true, by the 
eating of a carnal lamb. This passage of 
goodness, of clemency, and of grace is cele- 
brated by the reception of the true Paschal 
Lamb— Jesus Christ. 

vn. 

EIGHTH FIGURE. 

The sacrifice of the paschal lamb offers us a 
striking figure of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. 
And indeed, this paschal lamb should be 
spotless. Jesus Christ is the true lamb without 
spot ; He is the essence of purity and holiness. 
The bones of the paschal lamb were not to be 



EIGHTH FIGURE. 



57 



broken. Our Saviour died upon a cross and 
none of His bones were broken. The paschal 
lamb should be eaten in the same house, with 
unleavened bread and bitter lettuce. We eat 
the flesh of Jesus Christ, the true Paschal Lamb, 
in the same House — the Catholic Church. "We 
eat it with the unleavened bread of purity, 
charity, and with the bitter lettuce — mortifica- 
tion and penitence. 

To eat the paschal lamb their loins should 
be bound, they should have a staff in hand, and 
shoes on, in order to be in readiness to journey 
to the promised land. To receive our Lord, 
we must be pure and chaste ; we must have no 
hold on the world, figured by Egypt ; we must 
yearn for the possession of our heavenly home. 
The houses marked with the blood of the 
lamb, were not doomed by the angel of 
the Lord. The souls marked with the blood 
of Jesus Christ received worthily, shall not be 
punished by the sovereign Judge on the day 
of vengeance. 

'No stranger could share the eating: of 
the paschal lamb unless he were circumcised. 
Xo one can partake of the body and blood of 
Jesus Christ if he be not regenerated by the 
water of baptism. • 

Let us often receive in communion, the true 



58 CHILDREN OF THE PATEIAHCHS. 



spotless Lamb that delivers us from the slavery 
of sin, and from everlasting death. Let us re- 
ceive Him with love, with humility, and with 
hope, like travellers who despise this earth 
of sin, but who long for the promised land, 
where happiness reigns forever. 

vni 

A UNIVERSAL CRT, 

The captivity of the Israelites had lasted for 
215 years from the arrival of Jacob in Egypt, 
and 433 years since the vocation of Abraham, 
or since the first alliance made with this holy 
patriarch until the second under the ministry 
of Moses on Mount Sinai. The term then of 
slavery had been completed, and God accom- 
plished His promise accordingly. The children 
of Israel were now about putting into execu- 
tion the precept that Moses had given them on 
the part of God. It was in the middle of the 
night, when all was calm and silent, that the 
Sovereign Master of the lives of men, sent His 
angels to accomplish the sentence pronounced 
against Egypt. And at that moment the holy 
spirits smote the first-born - of the Egyptians, 
from Pharaoh's son and heir to the first-born 



A UNIVERSAL CRT. 



59 



of the last of his slaves condemned to hard 
labor, or to the rigors of prison. ~Nor were 
the first-born of animals spared ! but the min- 
isters of the vengeance of the Almighty 
respected the houses whose doors had been 
marked with the blood of the lamb. 
• Such was the accomplishment of thedreadful 
decree of the Lord against the Egyptians, and 
not one was excepted therefrom. In every 
family there was a corpse, and that corpse was 
the first-born, the support, the hope of the 
family. What a tumultuous confusion of men 
and women in despair ! A universal cry was 
heard throughout Egypt. Pharaoh, filled with 
fear and woe, arose at midnight with his cour- 
tiers, and in spite of the darkness, he sent for 
Moses and Aaron, aird they immediately came, 
and the prince without menacing as before, 
said : " Depart in haste, you and the children of 
Israel, and sacrifice to your God as you think 
proper ; take thither your cattle and your 
sheep ; I shall grant you all that you have hither- 
to besought of me ; but before you depart, bless 
me, and obtain for me the blessing of God." 
And the people, overwhelmed with the afflictions 
which this wicked prince had drawn down upon 
them by his inflexibility, eagerly besought the 
speedy departure of the children of God ; " for," 



60 



CHILDREN OF THE PATRIAECHS. 



said they, " if they remain here any longer, we 
shall all perish." (Exocl. xii.) 

Thus does God triumph ove.r the wicked ; thus 
does He loosen the chains of the oppressed. 
And Pharaoh and his counsellors had to yield to 
the power of the Almighty, and they could not 
resist the last and most terrible plague which 
had been inflicted upon them in God's just 
wroth. 

Why did they disobey at first, when the 
miracles wrought against them were slight? 
Your punishments and your rewards are ad- 
mirable, O Lord, because you are ever good 
and just! 



DEPLORABLE RESULT OF STRANGE 
OBDURACY, 

I. 

THREE MILLIONS OF CAPTIVES SET 

AT LIBERTY. 

On leaving the king, Moses repaired to 
Ramesses ; it was at an early hour, and he in- 
stantly gave orders for a speedy departure. 
The eagerness of the Egyptians, vrho believed 
themselves tn the eve of death, was such that 



CAPTIVES SET AT LIBERTY. 



61 



moments seemed years to them, and they were 
not satisfied till they were certain that the 
Israelites had passed the frontiers. 

Meanwhile, the latter hastened to make 
preparations, and they demanded of the Egyp- 
tians their gold and silver vases, their sump- 
tuous apparel, and their costly jewels, pursuant 
to the order that the Sovereign Distributor had 
given them, so that they should be paid for their 
hard work, and compensated for the houses 
and land they were leaving behind. This de- 
parture was so precipitate, that if Moses had 
not cautioned them of it beforehand, they 
would not have been able to take those urgent 
measures, but they had had time to prepare 
themselves for it. * 

Time was also of great moment to Moses, 
for he had to organize the march of a whole 
nation, numbering six hundred thousand men, 
without reckoning women and children, and 
including the latter with the aged people, and 
a quantity of slaves and of Egyptians who had 
been converted by the miracles of the Most 
High, and had joined the children of Israel and 
had submitted to their laws. Altogether, there 
was a multitude of three million persons. In- 
numerable herds of cattle and sheep driven by 

herdsmen followed, as also, vans and beasts of 
6 



62 



CHILDREX OF THE PATE.IAECHS. 



burden charged with provisions and spoils that 
the terror-stricken Egyptians had left in their 
hands. With this large number of equipages 
they departed from the land of their captivity. 
Moses had been in such haste to organize the 
march of his people, that they went forth with 
their bread half kneaded, and without being 
raised. They had to tie it up in bags, and 
carry it on their shoulders, and at their first 
encampment they made unleavened bread of it. 
The alarmed Egyptians had not allowed them 
time to make any other provisions for the 
first days of their long campaign. 

The Hebrew people left then the land of their 
captivity. They were divided by tribes and by 
families, and they went forth under the protec- 
tion of God and the guidance of Moses. O, won- 
der ! there was not one sick person amongst them ! 

Moses, with a watchful eye to all things, had 
the mortal remains of Joseph placed on a chariot 
to carry them back to the tomb of his fathers, 
according to the last words of the holy patri- 
arch. " God will visit you," he had said, " and 
do not forget to carry my remains among you." 

On they marched in good order, with the 
joy that hope gives to travellers, who journey 
towards their own country. 

But little did they know how long their pil 



THE PILLAR OF FIRE. 



63 



grimage should last before they entered the 
land of Canaan. (Exod. xii.) 

The Egyptians who kept the Israelites in 
bondage, figure sin that keeps us in the slavery 
of the devil, and that makes us worthy of the 
pains of hell. The departure from Egypt repre- 
sents the liberty that Jesus Christ has obtained 
for us. 

II. 

THE PILLAR OF FIEE. 

The Hebrews had left Harnesses, and under 
the guidance of Moses, they marched on in 
good order towards the east of this city, and in 
the direction of Socoth, avoiding thereby to 
pass by the land of the Philistines, which was 
situated at the north of Egypt. From the be- 
ginning of their march, God gave to His people 
new proofs of His protection. He formed a 
pillar, the basis of which was very wide, and 
the summit thereof reaching the clouds. It 
was composed of thick and condensed vapors. 
During the day, this pillar had the colors of a 
beautiful cloud, and at night it became as a 
bright fire, and it was as luminous as the sun. 
One of the heavenly spirits, and minister of the 
Lord, was charged with the direction of this 
cloud, which was destined to serve as a guide 



64 



CHILDREN OF THE PATRIAE CHS. 



to the Hebrews, to screen them from the heat 
of the sun, and to light them at night. When 
they were to continue their march, the pillar 
would rise from amidst the camp and would 
place itself on the pavilion of those who were 
heading the tribes, or it stopped, according as 
they were to march or encamp. 

These miracles lasted as long as they wan- 
dered in the wilderness, and, night and day, 
they reminded them of the protection of God. 

O, admirable goodness of Divine Providence ! 
O, God ! infinitely good towards his children ! 
And yet this people offended their benefactor ! 
They complained, they murmured, they were 
guilty of idolatry, of insubordination. 

The pillar stopped at Socoth, and the Israel- 
ites halted for some time. Moses spoke to 
them again of the orders of God; he recalled 
to their minds the law commanding the celebra- 
tion of the Pasch or Easter, every year in that 
same month, in remembrance of their miracu- 
lous deliverance, and by offering a lamb, the 
night of the fourteenth day. 

" When the Lord will have brought yon into 
the land promised to our fathers," added Moses, 
" you will all consecrate to him the first-born, 
men as well as animals. The men shall be re- 
deemed, and the animals shall be immolated 



TWO ARMIES. 65 

Tour children will ask you the reason of this 
law, saying, ' What is the meaning of this re- 
ligious ceremony?' and you will answer : 'The 
Lord our God has delivered us from bondage, 
and He has withdrawn us from the land of 
Egypt, by the sole strength of His will. When 
the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, that he 
resisted the orders of the Almighty, God struck 
with death the first-born of the Egyptians, 
sparing those of His people. It is in remem- 
brance of this event that we shall offer up to the 
Lord the first-born of animals, and that we 
shall redeem the first-born of our children," 
(Exod. xii., xiii.) 

The Jews were commanded to immolate 
their first-born, as we are recommended to con. 
secrate to him our youth, our first thoughts, 
our first desires. Let us not wait till the de- 
cline of life to offer ourselves to God. How do 
we know that He will accept the fruits of a 
feeble and deferred repentance ? 

III. 

TWO ARMIES IF PRESENCE OF EACH 
OTHER. 

From Socoth they advanced, keeping always 
in view the miraculous pillar, to Etham, and on 
6* 



66 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



the third day since they journeyed from Egypt, 
they reached the borders of the Red Sea. 

The Egyptians, meanwhile, had buried the 
victims of the vengeance of the Most High; 
thay were weighed down with grief. Pharaoh, 
on the other hand, was full of indignation 
when he heard that the Israelites had not only 
taken away their own spoils, but also those of 
the Egyptians ; he believed himself trifled with, 
and he resolved to make one last effort to re- 
new the captivity of the Hebrews. " What 
have we done?" exclaimed he; " we should 
not have set at liberty a people so useful to us. 
But we have still time to pursue them." And 
by his order, two hundred thousand men were 
set on foot, fifty thousand horses were equipped, 
six hundred wagons charged with arms, the 
state chariot of the king was in readiness, the 
generals were heading their troops, and Pha- 
raoh commanded the army. 

But the Israelites had gone forth under the 
protection of the Almighty, and as the Egyp- 
tians did not exactly know the direction they 
kad taken, they speedily followed their foot- 
steps. In the evening of the third day they 
came in sight of the Hebrews, who were as- 
sembled at a short distance from the Red Sea. 
It was late, and as the Egyptians saw them 



TWO ARMIES. 



67 



hemmed in between their army and the sea, 

they thought it fit to defer the attack until the 
next day. At the sight of this formidable 
army, the Hebrews believed themselves irrevo- 
cably lost ; fear took full possession of their 
souls, and they uttered loud cries to Heaven ; 
and Moses, their leader, the chosen man of 
God, had to suffer the most bitter reproaches 
from them; they assembled tumultuously around 
him, and they said : " Likely there were not 
enough graves for us in Egypt, since you have 
led us here to be buried in the burning sands 
of this desert. Wherefore have you dealt thus 
with us ? Did we not say to you : Let us alone 
that we may serve our masters ? It had been 
better for us had we obeyed the Egyptians 
than die in the wilderness by the sword of our 
enemies." Moses was not discouraged, and 
he excused his people in consideration of their 
mortal anxiety : " Fear not," said he to them, 
" have courage and submit yourselves to the 
will of God ; this day you will behold the 
wonderful things which God will operate in 
your favor. You now see for the last time all 
those Egyptians who are armed against us, 
for to-morrow they shall have all perished ! 
The Lord is with us, do not anger Him ; remain 
in peace under His protection." (Exod. xiv.) 



m 



68 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



The language of the Hebrews to Moses, was 
a proof of their ingratitude to the Lord, and 
of their insubordination to Moses, His minister ; 
but the latter had to bear with all these trials, 
which were merely to serve as a prelude to 
others fax more afflicting. 

IV. 

THE DESTRUCTION OF A WHOLE 
ARMY, 

Moses knelt before the throne of mercy to 
implore forgiveness for such wicked murmurs. 
His prayers were heard, and moreover, the 
Lord told him the means whereby he should 
deliver his people from their enemies. 

He therefore immediately sought the children 
of Israel, and he commanded them to be ready 
to continue their march. Then the angel of 
the Lord, who directed the pillar, placed it in 
the rear of the camp between the two armies, 
so that its luminous side lighted the way of 
the Israelites, whilst it appeared as a dark 
cloud to the Egyptians, and it concealed from 
them the movements of the Israelites. Here- 
upon, Moses, in the name of Him who created 
heaven, the earth, and the waters, stretched 
out his hand over the sea, the waters were 



DESTRUCTION OF A WHOLE AEMTc 



69 



divided, a:td a dry path was made for the 
Israelites, for there rose a burning wind that 
dried up and hardened the bottom of the deep, 
and made it firm under the feet of his people. 

The Israelites entered this miraculous route, 
whereon no foot had ever before trod ; and 
whilst the waters remained suspended like high 
walls on both sides, they passed, from evening 
till three o'clock in the morning, safely to the 
opposite shore. It was scarcely dawn of day 
when the Egyptians perceived the Hebrews 
escaping. They followed them speedily. The 
entire army, — men, horses, chariots, and the 
king took the same route. 

Meanwhile, the Israelites had landed safely, 
under the guidance of the pillar that also served 
the Egyptians as a point of attraction, for they 
were resolved to overtake their enemy. But 
this was the moment of God's vengeance ! All 
of a sudden the pillar opened, and they saw the 
an^el of the Lord threatening them with God's 
wrath. The thunder rolled through the firma- 
ment, and a hail of burning hot stones killed 
the horses, destroyed the chariots, and spread 
confusion and terror in the army ; the shouts 
and the clamor of men in despair rent the ah*, 
and they cried, " Let us fly from the Hebrews, 
let us cease to pursue them ; their God is 



70 CHILBEEX OF THE PATKIAECHS. 

against us ; He fights for them." It was too 
late ; and as they began to retrace their steps, 
the Lord said to Moses, " Stretch out your 
hand over the sea." The waters were instantly 
united, and they were all swallowed up, without 
one soul being able to escape. Thus was Is- 
rael delivered by a miracle of the Almighty 
from the persecutions of the Egyptians. By 
the will of the Most High, the waves washed 
the dead bodies and the war-stores ashore, and 
with thanks to God for those rich spoils, Moses 
distributed them to the different tribes and 
families. 

This event strengthened the faith of the 
Hebrews, and the authority of Moses was once 
more firmly established. (Exod. xiv.) 

With admiration do we contemplate the 
Jews saved from the depths of the sea, and we 
heed not the salvation of a soul in this present 
age. On the one hand, it is only Pharaoh van- 
quished ; on the other, it is the devil. How 
glorious it was for the Almighty to hear Pha- 
raoh exclaim : " Let us fly from the children of 
Israel; their God fights for them;" but how 
much more glorious it is for Him to hear the 
devil say : " Let us abandon this soul, for God 
is with it." 



A SUBLIME CANTICLE. 



71 



V. 

A SUBLIME CANTICLE. 

When the Israelites were delivered from the 
Egyptians, they were penetrated with gratitude 
towards the Almighty; and Moses, availing 
himself of their happy dispositions,. bade them 
sing to the Lord a sublime hymn of thanks- 
giving. 

" Let us sing to Jehovah a canticle of praise, 
because He has manifested His power and His 
glory by precipitating into the sea the horse 
and the horseman. The Lord is my strength, 
and the object of my praise : for He is my sal- 
vation. He is my God, and I shall glorify 
Him ; He is the God of my fathers, and I shall 
publish His miracles. The Lord has combated 
for me, His name is Almighty. He has buried 
in the sea, Pharaoh, his chariots, his generals, 
and all his army ; the waters have swallowed 
them up ; they have dropped as a stone to the 
bottom of the sea. O Lord, you have mani- 
fested your power, and your strength has anni- 
hilated the enemy. By the grandeur of your 
majesty you exterminate your adversaries ; you 
show them your anger, and they are dispersed 
as straws. At your bidding, O God Almighty, 



72 



CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



the menacing waves have suspended their 
coarse, and they have risen like two ramparts 
in the midst of the dryness of the sea. The 
enemy said, 1 1 shall pursue the children of 
Israel ; I shall overtake them, and make them 
my prisoners : I shall divide their spoils, and 
I shall satisfy my anger. I will draw my 
sword, and I shall exterminate them.' But 
you, O Lord, have breathed upon the waters, 
and they have fallen like lead to the bottom of 
the foaming waters. What God can be com- 
pared to you, O Jehovah 1 You alone are 
great and holy — terrible in your vengeance ; 
you alone are worthy of praise in the wonder- 
ful things you have wrought. You stretch 
forth your hand, and the sea swallows up the 
Egyptians. In your mercy, you became the 
protector of the people whom you have re- 
deemed ; and by your strength you have con- 
ducted them to their blissful home.* Nations 
rose up and were angry; sorrows took hold on 
the inhabitants of Philisthiim. Then were the 
princes of Edom troubled ; trembling seized on 
the stout men of Moab ; all the inhabitants of 
Canaan became stiff. Strike them, O Lord, with 
consternation, make them immovable as the 

* Here Moses speaks prophetically of the future, and 
as though it had already come to pass. 



A SUBLIME C ARTICLE. 



73 



rocks, whilst your chosen band pass out of 
their hands. Thou shalt bring them in and 
plant them in the mountain of thy inheritance, 
in thy most pious habitation which thou hast 
made, G Lord ; thy sanctuary, O Lord, which 
thy hands have established. The Lord shall 
reign foreyer and ever. The presumptuous 
Pharaoh, followed by his chariots and his 
cavalry, rode into the midst of the suspended 
waves ; and, at the word of the Lord, they 
were buried therein, but Israel was saved from 
the waters of the sea." (Exod. xv.) 

This canticle was sung by two great choirs ; 
Moses and Aaron being at the head of that 
of the men ; Mary, their sister, directed that 
of the women, and they bore timbrels in their 
hands. 

The chorus was : " Let us sing a canticle of 
praise to Jehovah, because He has manifested 
His power and His glory by burying in the 
sea the horse and the horseman." They sang all 
day to the glory of the great Liberator of Is- 
rael. The day on which the army was de- 
stroyed, was the seventh of Easter, and it was 
commanded to be celebrated as the first, on 
which died all the first-born of the Egyptians. 

What admirable sentiments in this canticle 
of Moses ! Let us also acknowledge the power, 
1 



74 



CHILDBED OF THE PATRIAECHS. 



the goodness, and the mercy of God towards 
us. Let us, like Moses, show our gratitude; 
let us glorify Him with all the sincerity of our 
hearts. 



THE 

CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS 

AT THE FOOT OF MOUNT SINAI. 



MIRACLES IS THE DESERT OF ARABIA. 
L 

THE WATERS OF MARA. 

Befohb Jesus Christ, 1645. 

On the day after the great victory gained 
over the Egyptians, through the, protection of 
the God of armies, Moses, following the move- 
ment of the pillar, gave the signal for the de- 
parture. The people left the borders of the 
Red Sea, and advanced towards the deserts of 
Sur. On they marched in the wilderness of 
Ithan, in the midst of the burning sands of this 
country, without finding any water to drink. 
At length, on the night of the 2 2d of the first 
month, they discovered several wells, the wa- 
ter of which was extremely bitter, by reason 



76 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

of which the place was called Mara — bitterness. 
Exhausted with fatigue, the people cried, 
u Who will give us water to drink ?" And all 
at once the desert resounded with murmurs 
against Moses. Inconstant people ! they have 
already forgotten the wonders operated in their 
favor by the Almighty ! However, the servant 
of God had recourse to God, and the Lord 
showed him a kind of wood, and He told him 
to throw it into the water, so as to render it 
fit for use. Moses acted accordingly ; and by 
the power and goodness of God, it became 
sweet and agreeable to the taste ; all the 
Israelites drank of it, and they ceased to 
murmur : but this was not honoring the Lord 
as He merited. And He reproached them 
gently, saying, " If you listen to the voice of 
the Lord your God ; if you walk in His way 
with simplicity and uprightness; if you keep 
His commandments, I shall not afflict you by 
plagues as I did Egypt. I am the Lord thy 
God, and I shall protect you from all evil." 
After this gentle reprimand, the Israelites left 
Mara, and they arrived at Elim, where they 
found seventy palm-trees and twelve wells of 
pure water. (Exod. xv.) 

The wood thrown into the water of Mara, 
represents the Cross of Christ that renders the 



THE QUAILS. 



11 



bitter waters of tribulations sweet and agree- 
able, and that enables us to suffer, with pa- 
tience, the trials of this life. 

H. 

THE QUAILS. 

It would seem that the Israelites had wan- 
dered some time in the neighborhood of the 
wells, for having left Elim, they only reached 
the desert of Sin, which is situated between Elim 
and Sinai, on the fifteenth of the second month 
of the year, and, therefore, it was precisely one 
month since their departure from Egypt. Un- 
fortunately, after a long march, their provisions 
were exhausted and they murmured as before. 
They surrounded Moses and his brother Aaron, 
and the most mutinous amongst them said : " Far 
better would it have been for us to die in Egypt, 
by the hand of the Lord. Why have you 
brought us into this dreadful wilderness where 
we shall all perish with our wives and children ?" 
And they loudly lamented their flesh-pots of 
Egypt and the bread they had in abundance. 
Moses had again recourse to the Lord, and he 
reprimanded the people : " This very night," said 
he to them, " you shall be witness of another mir- 
acle of the goodness of God, who has delivered 



78 CHILDREN of the patriarchs. 



you out of Egypt, He will give you meat for 
which you so much long, and to-morrow morn- 
ing He will manifest His glory in a still more 
wonderful manner. He will send you bread 
from Heaven. He has heard your murmurs. 
But why complain so seditiously ?" After these 
promises, Moses bade his brother assemble the 
children of Israel, in order that they should hear 
the confirmation of these new engagements. 

Aaron was yet speaking when all eyes were 
turned in the direction of the wilderness, and 
the Lord appeared in a cloud of glory, and He 
confirmed all that His servant had said. And 
indeed, at night, a cloud of quails covered the 
camp of the Hebrews, and they took them 
eagerly and made of them a delicate and abun- 
dant repast. (Exod. xvi.) 

But this was transient ; the Lord had granted 
them this delicious food, so that they should for- 
get the coarse food of Egypt. 

III. 

BREAD FROM HEAVEN. 

Whex Moses informed the Hebrews that God 
intended to supply them with meat, he spoke to 
them also of a bread that was to come from 
Heaven. The next morning, at an early hour, 
they perceived that all the environs of the camp 



BEEAD FEO^I HEAVEN. 



79 



were covered with a white dew upon which 
were clustered innumerable particles in the form 
of small beads. This dew had some resemblance 
to the hoarfrost that covers the surface of the 
earth in winter. Such a wonderful spectacle 
struck the people with surprise, and they said 
to each other, u 3fan-hu ?" which means : what is 
this ? " This is," said Moses to them, " the bread 
that the Lord your God has promised you for 
food, and listen to His orders hereupon : You 
shall gather each day as much of this dew as 
you may need, an omer (about three quarts), the 
portion of one man ; in each family, they shall 
gather, according to the number of persons in 
one tent." They immediately gathered it, and 
those who took a larger measure than was ne- 
cessary, found on their return, that it was not 
more than usual. " You see," said Moses, " that it 
is useless for you to gather a double quantity, 
the Lord wishes you to depend on His provi- 
dence ; let each one then take his share and re- 
serve none for the morrow." They heeded not 
his advice, and some of them gathered the manna 
for the next day, but it spoiled and they could 
not make use of it. This disobedience excited 
the just indignation of the servant of God. 

Abiding by the order of the Lord, they 
gathered, on the seventh day, a double quantity 



CHILD KEN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



of this food. They acquainted Moses of this 
precaution and he approved of it. " This is," said 
he, "the command of God : the seventh day is 
the Sabbath, a day of rest consecrated to the 
Lord. Gather then, to-day, double measure ; 
consume one part and keep the other for the 
next day, which is the holy day of rest." They 
followed this command, and the portion for the 
Sabbath kept perfectly well. Nevertheless some 
of them left their tents to gather the manna as 
on the preceding days, but there was none to 
be found. And the Lord said in His anger : 
" How long shall my laws be violated ? I have 
commanded the sanctification of the Sabbath, 
and I have permitted that each one should make 
double provision the day previous, and that 
each one should remain in his pavilion on the 
seventh day." 

This miraculous food had to be gathered in 
the early morning before sunrise, — otherwise it 
melted. They ground it under a mill-stone and 
they bruised it in a mortar, so as to reduce it to 
a paste which was baked in the form of cakes. 
It had the taste of the finest flour kneaded with 
oil and honey. This manna is called the bread 
of angels, the bread of Heaven, delectable bread. 
Those whose piety rendered them agreeable to 
God, found in it whatsoever taste they wished. 



NIXTH FIGURE. 



81 



It was a substitute for the most delicate, the 
most varied food. The Israelites were fed with 
this miraculous bread as long as they were in 
the desert. By the order of God, Moses charged 
Aaron, his brother, to take a measure of this 
manna and to keep it in a gold vase ; later, it 
was to be placed in the magnificent tabernacle 
which should be built by the order of the Lord, 
in the midst of his people. (Exod. xvi.) 

The Christians have an advantage over the 
Jews, inasmuch as they possess the true manna, 
the bread of Heaven. " I am," said our Saviour, 
" the bread of life ; he who eats of this bread shall 
have life everlasting ; this bread is my body 
which I give for the salvation of the world. 
Your fathers have eaten of the manna, and they 
died ; but he who eateth this bread shall live 
for ever." (St. John vi., 33.) 

IV. 

NINTH FIGURE. 

The manna affords us a profound subject 
of consideration, and a true figure of Jesus 
Christ in the Eucharist. For the Israelites, 
the manna was a food that came from Heaven. 
For the Christians, the Eucharist is a bread of 
Heaven, destined to be the food of their souls. 
The manna was only given to the people of 



82 



CHILDREX OF THE PATEIAECHS. 



Israel after they had passed through the waters 
of the Red Sea. The holy Eucharist is only given 
to Christians after baptism, figured by the pas- 
sage of Israel through the Red Sea. 

The manna fell for the Israelites only. It 
flattered their different tastes and tempera- 
ments, but it did not snre them from death. 
The Eucharist is given to Christians only. It 
strengthens the weak, it consoles the afflicted, 
and it is a sign of life everlasting. 

The manna fell as long as the Israelites were 
in the desert, and when the}' arrived into the 
promised land it ceased. 

The Eucharist is the food of Christians so- 
journing on earth ; and when they are in 
Heaven, their true home, this food will also 
cease, and God, who has been veiled under the 
appearance of bread, will then appear to them 
in full glory. 

Let us nourish our souls with this divine 
bread, which makes us the dwelling of God 
Himself. Let us cherish this heavenly food ; it 
shows us the way to Heaven. Jesus Christ 
says : " He who eateth My body, and drinketh 
My blood, shall have life everlasting; and he 
shall rise triumphant on the last day." O, 
consoling words ! 



THE ROCK OF HOREB. 



S3 



Y. 

THE ROCK OF HOREB. 

It would seem impossible that the Israelites 
should henceforward want confidence in the 
Almighty, after the striking examples that had 
taken place. However, new wants disposed 
them to renew their murmurs. From the 
desert of Sin, where they had sojourned some 
time, they continued their march towards the 
desert of Sinai, and after a few days they 
reached Raphidim, near the mountain of Ho- 
reb. The pillar having stopped, their first 
care was to seek for springs and streams, but 
in vain. These children of the patriarchs had 
not inherited the faith and the confidence of 
their fathers. The want of water nigh excited 
them to despair, and they seditiously said to 
Moses : Give us water, if you do not wish to 
see us die of thirst. Is it for this end you have 
taken us away from Egypt, with our children 
and our flocks ?" Moses reproached them for 
their injustice towards him. and their impiety 
towards God. Then, addressing himself to the 
Lord : - VThat shall I do/' cried he, " to satisfy 
this people ? Pity them, and pity me. for they 
are ready to stone me to death !" The Lord, in 



84 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

His ineffable goodness, heard the prayers of His 
servant, and He performed another miracle in 
favor of His people. "Fear not," said the 
Lord to Moses ; " place yourself at the head of 
the camp ; take the rod with which yon struck 
the waters of the Nile ; choose some of the 
heads of the tribes, and let them accompany 
you to Mount Horeb. I shall precede you 
thither. I shall be there in an , invisible man- 
ner. With your rod you shall strike the rock, 
whence shall flow a stream of water, with 
which the people and their herds shall quench 
their thirst." Moses obeyed the orders of the 
Lord, in the presence of the elders of the tribes 
of Israel, and pure streams of water flowed 
from the hard rock, and they watered the dry 
and barren plains. 

During the Israelites' long sojourn at Raphi- 
dim, or in the neighboring deserts, the waters 
regulated their coarse to their march ; they 
followed them constantly, and supplied their 
wants without interruption. 

The place where this miracle took place was 
called Temptation, because there the children 
of Israel had manifested their impiety so far as 
to say : " Is the Lord with us or not ?" (Exod. 
xvii.) 

Faithless people ! How could they doubt 



FIGURE OF THE CEOSS. 



85 



God's presence, after so many miracles of His 
divine assistance ? And yet what goodness on 
the part of God ! At the prayers of Moses, he 
granted them all that he asked for, despite 
their inconstancy- 

VI. 

FIGURE OF THE CROSS. 

Strengthened by this miraculous water, the 
Israelites were pursuing their course through 
the wilderness, when the Amalekites, descend- 
ants of Amalek, son of Elipha, and grandson of 
Esau, people of that part of Arabia lying east- 
ward of the Jordan, came close upon them, 
and obstructed their passage onward. They 
formed a strong army, equipped and armed for 
an attack ; but Moses, full of confidence in the 
God of armies, feared not this formidable en- 
counter. He, therefore, selected a captain fit 
to head the people of God, and it was Josue, 
son of Nun, chief of the tribe of Ephraim. It 
was a difficult matter to organize an army with 
men totally undisciplined, and to lead them on 
against a powerful people, inured to war, and 
to open, in spite of their position, a passage to 
the land of Canaan. ' But Josue was the hero 
chosen by God for this glorious and important 
expedition, and for which He gave him the 
8 



86 CHILDREN" OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

necessary strength, courage, and knowledge. 
" The Lord," said Moses to Josue, " has des- 
tined yon to be the captain of His troops ; take 
with yon the bi avest of the Israelites, and give 
battle to Amalek. To-morrow I shall be on 
the summit of Mount Horeb, with my miracu- 
lous rod." 

Josue obeyed ; he took his men, and, acting 
according to the word of the seryant of God, 
he gave battle to the Amalekites. On the 
other hand, Moses, accompanied by his brother 
Aaron and by Hur, placed himself on the moun- 
tain which commanded a view of the battle- 
field; and whilst Josue valiantly combated 
the enemy, Moses prayed, with his hands 
stretched towards Heaven— whence all protec- 
tion comes — thus forming the figure of the 
cross which should, at some future time, be so 
salutary to Christians, and so formidable to 
their enemies. 

Meanwhile, Moses observed all that was 
taking place around the camp. He noticed, 
likewise, that so long as he held his hands up- 
lifted the Israelites triumphed, and when with 
fatigue he would let them fall, Amalek seemed 
to gain advantage over the Israelites. Being 
thus obliged to keep his hands raised, they 
became heavy and benumbed ; his strength 



FIGURE OF THE CROSS. 



87 



failed him. Then Aaron and Hur, perceiving 
the exhaustion of this holy man, sat him down 
upon a stone, and, placing themselves by his 
side, they supported his arms ; so that, ex- 
periencing no further lassitude, Moses' hands 
were raised towards Heaven till sunset, at 
which time the victory was won. The Ama- 
lekites were entirely defeated, and they no 
longer impeded the march of the people of 
God. 

The Lord then commanded Moses to write the 
history of this event in a separate book ; to re- 
late therein the anathema pronounced against 
Amalek, and the implacable war which He de- 
clared against him. This manuscript should be 
given to Josue, thence to the judges and to 
the kings, until the time marked for the accom- 
plishment of its decrees. 

After this victory, Moses gave public thanks- 
giving to God. He raised an altar, to which 
he gave a Hebrew name, and which signifies — 
The Lord is my glory. He offered victims to 
the God of armies, saying : " The Lord hath 
sworn to exterminate the enemies of his people 
— the Amalekites — from generation to gene- 
ration, until their name is effaced from the 
memory of men." (Exod. xvii.) 

Life is a continued combat. At every step 



88 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



we meet with enemies who would impede our 
passage to the true promised land. 

How shall we be fortified for this continual 
struggle if it be not by prayer ? In imitation 
of Moses, let us raise our supplicating hands 
towards Heaven, let the cross of our Saviour be 
our support, it will render us strong and victo- 
rious. 

VII. * 

A FAMILY MEETING. 

The miracles performed by God in favor of 
His people were soon known throughout foreign 
countries, but in no place were they spoken of 
with more interest and gladness than at Midian, 
in the family of Jethro, the father-in-law of 
Moses. Full of profound joy, the former took 
the wife of the servant of God and his two sons, 
and went forth on a journey to congratulate his 
son-in-law. He arrived- at the foot of Mount 
Horeb, where the children of Israel were yet en- 
camped. Jethro did not judge it proper to sur" 
prise this great man whom God had chosen to 
deliver His people, so he forewarned him of his 
coming by a messenger who had order to say : 
" Your father-in-law, your wife Sephora, and 
your two sons are impatiently waiting to see 
you." Moses hastened to meet his father-in- 



A FAMILY MEETING. 



89 



law, before whom he prostrated himself ; on the 
other hand, Jethro bent over Moses and em. 
braced him tenderly. After Moses had given 
his wife and his children marks of his sincere 
affection, he led the travellers to his tent, and 
he related to them all the mighty things that 
God had wrought in favor of His people, and 
the victory they had just gained over the Ama- 
lekites. Jethro listened to this recital with pro- 
found emotion, and, more grateful than the chil- 
dren of Israel, he praised the goodness, the 
power, and the mercy of the Lord. 44 Blessed be 
the God of Israel,'' exclaimed he, " who hath 
broken the chains of His people, and hath de- 
livered them from the persecutions of the Egyp- 
tians and from the tyranny of Pharaoh. Yes, 
O Lord, I confess you are the only true God, 
you have chastised the transgressors of your will. 
You alone are great and the mighty ruler of the 
world.' 1 Jethro not only praised trie Lord, but, 
being priest of the Most High, he offered Him 
burnt-sacrifices, in gratitude. Aaron and the 
elders of Israel participated als ) in this happy 
union, and Moses having retained them, they 
all shared in the grand festivity prepared in 
honor and in the presence of the Loid. (Exod. 
xviii.) 

Jethro, though a stranger, had no sooner 
8* 



\ 



90 CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 

heard of the wonderful things operated by the 
Lord, in favor of His people, than he left the land 
of Midian and his occupation, to mingle, with 
the servant of God, his praise and thanksgiving ; 
whilst the Israelites, the objects and the wit- 
nesses of this great solemnity, manifested, never- 
theless, their insubordination, their ingratitude, 
and even their idolatry. 

VIII. 

A SALUTARY COUNSEL. 

The gladness of Moses and the high conside- 
ration which he bore for Jethro, did not make 
him oblivious of the duties which he owed, as it 
were, more to his people than to his family. 

The next day, the servant of God resumed 
his ordinary occupations, and at early morning 
he was again the arbiter of his people ; his whole 
time was consecrated to them, and scarcely had 
he a moment's respite. Jethro felt anxious, on 
beholding the constant and laborious exertions 
of his son-in-law, and he said to him : " Why do 
you deal thus with this people ? You are the 
only judge in their midst, and for this reason you 
are beset from dawn of day till sunset." " And 
how otherwise should I deal with them?" replied 
Moses ; " this people look upon me as their oracle ; 



A SALUTAKY COUNSEL. 



91 



to appease their various contests, they have re- 
course to me, so as I should make known to 
them the will and the laws of God." " This is 
just," rejoined Jethro, " but suffer me to speak to 
you with all sincerity of heart : this labor is 
above your strength, cease it therefore in due 
time or you will succumb. Hearken to the coun- 
sel I now give you, for it meets the approbation 
of the Most High. Reserve yourself for all 
things concerning Religion, its worship, its cere- 
monies, and the instruction of the people, but 
for the rest you are not short of honest and dis- 
interested men, who fear God and cherish truth 
and justice ; leave to them the details of minor 
affairs, and once more, reserve yourself for those 
of first importance. Abiding by this advice, 
you will act according to the designs of the 
Lord. You w T ill thereby fulfil the duties of your 
ministry, you will be relieved of a heavy task, 
and your people will go their way satisfied." 

Moses followed the advice of his father-in-law, 
and having selected amongst his people the most 
respected of them for their piety, their honesty 
and their learning, he instituted them as judges 
over a certain number of persons, over a thou- 
sand, a hundred, fifty, and even over ten. They 
were to settle minor matters, reserving those of 
importance for Moses. After this salutary ad- 



92 



CHILDREN OF THE PATRIARCHS. 



rice, wherefore it would seem that God had 
conveyed Jethro to Mount Horeb, the latter took 
leave of Moses and returned to Midian delighted 
with the greeting whereof he was the object. 
(Exod. xviii.) 

Let us admire the m^odesjby of Moses. He 
condescends to hearken to the advice of a fellow- 
being, in spite of the great wisdom whereby he 
was invested by God. Then, lie shares with 
others an authority which he might have re- 
served for himself. Such is the example of the 
Saints : they know not ambition, nor jealousy, 
nor pride. 



MIGHTY DISPLAY FOR THE PROMULGA- 
TION OF THE LAW. 

I. • - ' ' ; 

SOLEMN PROPOSITIONS. 

The pillar gave the usual signal, and the Is- 
raelites departed from Raphidim, and on the 
first day of the third month since the going out 
of Egypt, they entered the desert of Sinai, and 
their journey thither was not long. They raised 
a pavilion in view of the famous mountain which 
gave its name to this wilderness, leaving open 
a largos space of land between the camp which 



SOLEMN PROPOSITIONS. 



93 



they had chosen and the height which was to 
serve as the theatre to one of the most sublime, 
and most solemn spectacles that eye of man 
had ever witnessed. 

As it was to he apprehended that the truths 
which God had given to the father of the human 
race, and which were transmitted, by tradition^ 
from father to son, might be changed and even 
forgotten, God wished to renew them by giving 
written laws. Moses had retired to the summit 
of Mount Sinai, to offer prayers to God, when, 
in the midst of the silence and his deep medita- 
tion, the Lord made His voice heard, and He 
said : " Go, Moses, return to the Hebrews and 
tell them that their God has said : You have 
witnessed the severity with which I have treated 
the Egyptians, and how I have delivered you 
from out of their hands. I have chosen you for 
my people ; I have carried you as the eagle car- 
ries her young ones upon her wings. If there- 
fore you listen to my voice, if you do my will, 
you shall be the choice portion of my inheri- 
tance, for the world belongs to me. You shall 
be to me a priestly kingdom, and a holy na 
tion." 

Moses came down from the mountain, and 
called together the children of God ; he repeated 
to them faithfully the words of the Lord and he 



94 CHILDREN OF THE PATEIARCHS. 

terminated by asking of them a precise answer. 
They exclaimed unanimously : " We shall do 
as the Lord says, we shall submit without mur- 
mur to His commands." Moses returned, with 
joy, to apprise the Lord of the resolution of his 
people. " Now," replied the Lord, " you shall 
be my interpreter to them. I shall appear to 
you veiled in a dark cloud, in order that my 
people hear me when I shall speak to you, and 
that they believe the truths which you will an- 
nounce to them from me. Return to the camp, 
purify the Hebrews to-day, and to-morrow 
let them wash their garments and be ready for 
the third day, on which the Lord will descend 
in all His glory on Mount Sinai, in the presence 
of the people of Israel. Encompass the moun 
tain with barriers, and say to the people : do 
not ascend the mountain or pass those limits, for 
those who transgress this order shall die, ani- 
mals as well as men. They shall approach the 
limits, but at the sound of a trumpet." Moses 
came back from the mountain and related all 
that the Lord had commanded. (Exod. xix.) 

What respect for this mountain whence 
should come the voice of the Almighty, pub- 
lishing His divine oracles, and giviug His laws. 
What dispositions then were necessary to hear 
the voice of God ; and how do we now dispose 



